Story of a cannibal

When a father hunting beaver is ambushed and killed by the cannibal Djec’actodji’ne’hwan, his young sons witness the threat but are forbidden to speak. Their mother, sensing danger, gathers relatives and follows the ominous fire to find the hunter roasting alive. They set snares, trap the monster, and avenge their kin by killing and burning him. In the end, they recover and bury the father’s body, restoring justice.

Source:
Some Naskapi Myths
from Little Whale River
by Frank G. Speck
The American Folklore Society
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.28, No.107, pp. 70-77
January-March, 1915

► Themes of the story

Good vs. Evil: The tale centers on the moral struggle between the innocent family and the malevolent cannibal.

Revenge and Justice: The relatives pursue and punish the cannibal to avenge the slain hunter.

Mythical Creatures: The cannibal (“lai’tigo”) functions as a supernatural monster preying on humans.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

From Lake Waswanipi Band of Cree

There was once a man who had two sons, little boys, whom he left in camp when he went off to hunt beaver. He had not been gone long before Djec’actodji’ne’hwan [translated by the narrator, who spoke very little English, as “cap”] came to the camp and saw the little boys. “Where has your father gone?” he asked them. One of them told him that their father had gone to hunt beaver. Then Djec’actodji’ne-‘hwan told them not to tell anybody that he had been there. Said he, “I am going to hunt up your father and kill him tonight. I will build a big fire to cook his beavers. But you must not tell anybody.” And he went away. When night came, the little boys’ mother came and asked them if anybody had been there. “Yes, Djec’actodji’ne’hwan,” they replied. Then she asked them what he had said. And they told her he had said he would kill their father and make a big fire to cook his beavers, and that he had told them not to tell anybody.

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So the woman got her relatives together, and they set out to hunt for the father. Soon they came to where they could see a big fire; and they saw a big body laid out straight beside the fire, and Djec’actodji’ne’hwan cutting big slices off its side and roasting them in the fire. When they drew nearer, they saw that it was the hunter who was being eaten. Then the mother began crying; but one of the men told her not to cry. He said, “We will kill the cannibal (lai’tigo) who has killed your husband.” And they got snares and set them about. Then Djec’actodji’ne’hwan got caught in the snares, and the men beat him to death with axes. Then they threw him into the fire and burned him all up; and they buried the hunter’s body. One arm was already eaten off.

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The Snow Man

An Indian hunter endures a thawing winter’s slush and angrily blames the North Man. He meets the supernatural Snow Man, then spends spring and summer storing wood and animal grease. When the next winter’s cold arrives, he relies on his provisions and outlasts the Snow Man, who concedes defeat and restores balanced winters thereafter. The tale explains why winters aren’t extreme.

Source:
Some Naskapi Myths
from Little Whale River
by Frank G. Speck
The American Folklore Society
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.28, No.107, pp. 70-77
January-March, 1915

► Themes of the story

Origin of Things: The story explains why winters become balanced rather than too extreme.

Supernatural Beings: The Snow Man is a mystical figure who directly interacts with the hunter.

Conflict with Nature: The hunter struggles against harsh, unpredictable winter conditions.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

An Indian was travelling in the winter-time; and the snow was soft and slushy, as the weather had grown warm. He was wading through the slush on his journey. The walking was so bad that he grew angrier as he proceeded. At last he came to a lake, and found that it was covered with water on the ice, and he had to wade through it. As he got wetter, he grew still angrier; and he exclaimed at last, “Why does the North Man do this? Why doesn’t he send good winter weather?”

At last he came to a portage at the other end of the lake. As he started on the portage, he saw a man all in white standing before him. At first he did not know who it could be; but as he came closer, he discovered that it was a Snow Man.

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He had been feeling very angry as he came along, and the Snow Man saw how cross he looked. When the hunter came close, the Snow Man said, “What is the matter?” Then the hunter replied, “Such terrible slush and melting weather! The North Man is no good.” Then the Snow Man said, “I can’t do anything for you now; but some time I will try to help you.” — “All right,” said the hunter. The Snow Man disappeared, and the hunter went on with his journey.

The spring came, and warm weather. The lake melted and broke up. Then the hunter thought to himself, “I wonder what the Snow Man meant when he said he would help me!” He began to hunt, and saved the grease from the animals he killed, and put it all in bladders. He made a big camp and cut lots of wood, and kept piling up wood and storing grease all summer and fall, for he thought the Snow Man had meant something serious by what he had said.

When fall was over, the weather began to grow cold, and the snow season commenced. It snowed and snowed, and drifted in great masses around his camp and over the wigwam. So the winter went on colder and colder, until one day the Snow Man came to the camp. He found the hunter sitting by his fire. “How do you find the weather now?” said the Snow Man. “All right,” replied the hunter. The Snow Man staid, and the cold increased and the snow drifted higher. The hunter kept putting wood on the fire, and pouring grease on it, to make it burn stronger. By and by the Snow Man again asked the hunter, “How do you like the weather now?” — “All right,” answered the hunter, as before. He had really had enough cold weather, but he would not give in. He stood the cold well, because he had plenty of provisions, wood, and grease. He used these and piled wood on his fire, making the wigwam hotter and hotter.

At last the Snow Man could stand it no longer, for he was commencing to melt. Soon he had to go away. But before he went, he told the hunter, “You are a stronger man than I am. You have conquered me, and now I will leave.” After that he departed, and the cold began to moderate. The winter continued not so cold, but just as it should be, — not too cold nor too warm. It was a good winter, and since then the winters have not been so extreme.

The giant carried off by the eagle

A hundred-foot Beaver lived on a lakeside rock, hunted by a giant man who feared a monstrous eagle. After the giant killed the Beaver and carried it away, the eagle intercepted him, fed his prize to its young, and trapped him in its lofty nest. The giant tricked and killed the eagle, hid inside its carcass, and plunged safely to earth, later returning home unharmed.

Source:
Some Naskapi Myths
from Little Whale River
by Frank G. Speck
The American Folklore Society
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.28, No.107, pp. 70-77
January-March, 1915

► Themes of the story

Quest: The story centers on the giant’s perilous journey to hunt the colossal beaver.

Supernatural Beings: The narrative highlights struggles against two formidable natural creatures: the giant beaver and the monstrous eagle.

Revenge and Justice: After the eagle feeds his prize to its young, the giant avenges himself by killing the bird.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

There was once a giant Beaver who had his house on the top of a great big rock on the shore of a lake. This Beaver was about one hundred feet long, and his cabin was very large. Near him lived a giant man who used to hunt the Beaver, but lived in fear of a monster Eagle who was watching all the time to carry him off. This Eagle was so large that he could pick up the giant as easily as an ordinary eagle could carry off a rat, even though the giant was taller than the largest tree, and broad to suit his height.

At last the giant’s family grew so hungry, that he was compelled to go and hunt: so he took his ice-chisel and went to chisel for the giant Beaver. [The ice-chisel is made by attaching a bone, or nowadays a metal blade, to a pole of sufficient length.]

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He drove the Beaver from his nest, and at last cornered him and killed him. Then he packed him on his back and started for home. On the way the Eagle saw him coming, swooped down, and picked up both the hunter and his beaver as easily as he would two rabbits. Far up on a rocky mountain he flew with them to where he had his nest, thousands of feet above the valley. His nest was very large and had young eagles in it. When he got there, he began picking the beaver to pieces to feed it to his young eagles. Now, he kept the giant safe in the nest until the beaver was all gone.

In a few days there was nothing left of the beaver, and the Eagle got ready to kill the giant hunter. He rose high in the air, and swooped down to strike the giant with his wings and claws. Then the giant took his chisel and held it blade up, with the hind end braced against the ledge, so that when the Eagle swooped he would strike upon it. There it held fast; so that every time the Eagle swooped to strike the giant, he struck upon the chisel and cut his breast. After several trials the Eagle fell over dead into the nest.

Now, the giant was free from his captor, but could not get down from the nest on the cliff. He killed the young eagles. At last an idea came to him as to how to save himself. He cut the Eagle open down the breast and crawled inside. The idea came to him to shove off the cliff, and that the Eagle’s wings and body would break his fall. So he pushed off, and down they went a mile through the air. He landed heavily, but was not hurt. He looked around to see where he was, and soon started for home. He had a long way to go, the Eagle had carried him so far.

In the mean time, when the giant’s family found that he did not return the day he went for beaver, they started out to track him. They trailed him to where he had killed the Beaver, and farther, soon coming to a place where his tracks ended suddenly, as though he had been picked up. Here they gave up and went back to their camp. Said one of the old men, “Our son must have been carried away by some creature. We must help him all we can by our thoughts.” So they waited and “wished” for his safe return. At last, after a few days, the giant arrived, and told his adventures; but the old man said, “It was not your cunning or strength that saved you, but the strength of our thoughts.”

The four wind brothers

Four elemental brothers—North, South, East, and West—live in a cavern and stand above a great hole to blow the world’s winds. The youngest, West, blows fiercest gusts, but the eldest, North, warns him to restrain his strength to protect their mother (the Earth) and the people. Together they balance their powers, ensuring the winds are strong enough to serve yet never so wild as to harm.

Source:
Some Naskapi Myths
from Little Whale River
by Frank G. Speck
The American Folklore Society
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.28, No.107, pp. 70-77
January-March, 1915

► Themes of the story

Origin of Things: This tale explains the natural phenomenon of wind by personifying its four directional forces.

Family Dynamics: The story centers on sibling relationships, hierarchies of age, and mutual influence among the four brothers.

Guardian Figures: The eldest (North) moderates his younger brother’s power to protect “their mother” (the Earth) and its people.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

There were four brothers in a family which lived in a great cave in the earth. Of these four brothers, one was the North, another was the South, another the West, and the other the East. These were the Wind brothers, who made the winds. The West was the youngest of them; the North was the oldest; the South was the next to the oldest; and the East was the next to the West, the youngest. To cause the winds they would stand up, so as to be head above the great hole, and blow. Then the wind would come according to which of the brothers made it, the north, south, east, or west. And so it continued. The West was very wild when he raised a wind. But the oldest, the North, said to him, “No, no! Don’t do that! You will raise such high winds that it will destroy the people, the Indians.”

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Then when the youngest, the West, jumped up again to blow a wind, the North would tell him, “No, no! Stop, you will kill our mother!” Well, so they lived, these brothers, causing and regulating the winds of the world.

It happened that the North wind was the softest, and the East wind a little stronger, harder. The South also came with gusts, strong, but not as bad as the West wind, the youngest brother, who was the worst. When these brothers made the winds, they were satisfied with doing just enough not to destroy the people, but tried to manage things rightly. They would say, all of them, “We must try to look after our people, not to destroy them with our winds!”

Ayas’i

Ayas’i, a cunning chief, is deceived by his younger wife into believing his eldest son assaulted her. Exiling him to an island, the boy endures trials—assisted by a gull, a catfish, and a fox—overcoming sky-hooks, monster dogs, and deadly women. Returning home, he reveals the truth, punishes his father by turning him into a frog, and restores his mother as the robin, explaining their origins.

Source:
Some Naskapi Myths
from Little Whale River
by Frank G. Speck
The American Folklore Society
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.28, No.107, pp. 70-77
January-March, 1915

► Themes of the story

Family Dynamics: The tale centers on jealousy, step-mother rivalry, and the fraught father-son relationship.

Revenge and Justice: After surviving exile, the son exacts retribution on his deceitful father and vindicates his mother.

Origin of Things: The narrative explains how the robin and the frog came to be, grounding a cultural origin‐myth.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

Ayas’i was a great chief and trickster. He was an old man and had two wives, — an older one, his first wife; and a younger one, his second. By the older one he had a grown-up son, and several younger ones by the other wife. Now, the young woman was very jealous of the older wife, because she thought that Ayas’i would give the chieftainship to his son by his first wife; in other words, to his oldest son. She tried in different ways to invent stories against the son to poison Ayas’i’s mind against him. She kept telling Ayas’i that the oldest son was trying to seduce her. Although Ayas’i liked his oldest son, he came at last to believe the younger woman’s stories, and began to suspect the boy. But the stories he heard were not proved. The boy was very quiet and well-behaved.

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One day the young woman was out in the bush and saw a partridge, and then she thought of a plan to trap the boy. She hurried back to the camp, and told the son to come and shoot the bird for her. “Oh, no!” said he, “there are plenty of younger boys here. Get some of them to go and kill the partridge.” But she coaxed him to come, saying that he was so much more able. At last he consented, and went with her and killed the partridge. Then the young wife pulled up her dresses, took the dying bird, and made it scratch her between the legs until she was lacerated around her lower parts. Then she went back to the camp. That night Ayas’i lay beside her and desired to cohabit. “No, no!” she said, “I’m too sore. I’m all cut up from my struggles with your oldest son.” Ayas’i was surprised. Then she showed him the scratches and wounds, and told him how he had struggled with her in the woods and raped her. So Ayas’i grew bitter against the boy.

The next day a big canoe crowd arrived at the camp, as Ayas’i was a great man and often had visitors from far away. He got the crowd together, and said to them, “Now, tomorrow we will all go to the islands and collect eggs for a great feast for my son, as he wants eggs from the islands.” Ayas’i was a great chief, so whatever he said had to be done. The next morning he told his son, “You must come too.” — “No,” said the son, “I don’t want any eggs, anyway.” But Ayas’i made him go too. So he got his canoe; and they embarked, and paddled toward a big island, Ayas’i at the stern, and the son paddling at the bow. When they saw a big island, the son asked, “Is that the island?” — “Yes,” said Ayas’i. Then he blew his breath and blew the island farther ahead. The son could not see his father blowing, and wondered why the island could not be approached.

At last, however, they reached the island when Ayas’i thought they were far enough from home. “Now, go ashore and gather eggs,” said Ayas’i. His son began gathering eggs near the shore. “Now go farther up. There are some fine eggs over yon rise. Don’t stop so near the shore,” said Ayas’i. Every time the son would look behind to see how far he was from the shore, Ayas’i would send him farther inland. Then, when the boy was some distance in, Ayas’i jumped into the canoe and paddled away home. The son called after him, “Father, father, you are leaving me!” — “Well, you have been making a wife of your step-mother,” cried Ayas’i; and away he went, leaving his son behind. So the boy was left on the island, and wandered about, crying.

One day the boy met a Gull. “O grandchild! what are you doing here alone?” asked the Gull. “My father left me,” said the boy. “You won’t ever see the mainland again,” said the Gull; “but I’ll try to take you myself. Get on my back, and I will try.” So the boy got on his back, and the Gull tried to fly up. But the boy was too heavy, and the Gull had to turn back. “But go over to the other end of the island, and there you will find your grandfather [merely a term used in addressing older people]. Maybe he can help you,” said the Gull.

So the boy wandered on, crying, and soon came to the other end of the island. There he saw a big Catfish (?). “What are you doing here?” said the Catfish. “My father left me,” said the boy. “What do you want?” said the Catfish. “To get ashore to the mainland,” said the boy. “Well,” said the Catfish, “maybe I can take you over. Is it clear?” (The great Catfish was afraid of the thunder.) — “Yes,” said the boy. “Are there no clouds?” asked the Fish. “No,” said the boy. “Are you sure? Well, then take a stone in your hand and get on my back. Hold on tight to my horns (the Catfish had two horns on his head); and when you find me going too slowly, hammer with the stone, and I’ll hurry faster, especially if it begins to look cloudy. Are you sure there are no clouds? Well, hold on tight, now!” And with this they started like the wind. Every little while the boy would hit the Fish a rap with the stone, and he would go still faster. Soon it began clouding up. “Is it clouding up yet?” asked the Fish. “No,” answered the boy, even though he heard thunder. “What’s that I hear? Is it thunder?” asked the Fish. “Oh, no!” cried the boy, and hit him harder with the stone.

Just then they reached the mainland; and the boy just had time to jump ashore, when a thunder-bolt came and smashed the Fish to pieces. But the boy got safely ashore, and began wandering about until at last he came to a small wigwam. He walked up and lifted the door-cover. There inside he saw a Fox sitting before a small kettle over the fire. When the Fox saw him, she said, “Well, grandchild, what are you doing here?” — “My father left me,” the boy told her. Said the Fox, “I don’t think you will ever succeed in getting home, as your father is very tricky and strong. Nevertheless I will try to help you.”

In the mean time the boy’s mother, the first wife of Ayas’i, felt very bad over the loss of her son. She cried all the time. She would go away in the woods by herself all day and cry; and every night, when she came home, Ayas’i would meet her outside the door and throw embers from the fire on her and burn her. So this went on day after day.

Now, the Fox agreed to help the boy. She transformed herself into a person and guided him along the trail. Soon they came to a place where a lot of hooks (like fish-hooks) were hanging down from the sky. There was no way of getting past without being impaled. Then the Fox turned herself into a small animal, and went up into the sky where the hooks were hung, and jerked them up. She told the boy to jump by when she jerked them up; and he did so, and got safely by.

As they went along farther, they soon came to a place where two monster-dogs were guarding the path. It was very narrow, and there were a lot of rocks. The Fox turned herself into a weasel, and turned the boy into another small animal. Then she wriggled in and out among the rocks, and the dogs began barking fiercely. “I’m barking at Ayas’i’s son!” cried the dogs. The Fox in her weasel form popped up here and there among the rocks until the dogs were frantic. They barked so much, that their master got angry at them, and came out and killed them for making such a noise about nothing; for every time he looked to see what caused them to bark, he could not see anything. When the dogs were dead, the Fox led the boy through safely. Now, these obstacles were all put along the trail by Ayas’i to prevent his son from getting back.

As the boy and his guide, the Fox, passed on, they soon came to a place where there was a flint stone, rounded on the end, and three-cornered on its sides. Then the Fox-Woman said, “Carry that stone with you, you may need it.” So the boy took the stone. Soon they came to a wigwam where lived two women who guarded the way. These women had sharp teeth set in their vulva, with which they killed anybody who cohabited with them. This every one had to do before he could pass them. The Fox-Woman told the boy that he would have to cohabit with these women, but to use the stone. So that night, when they intended to kill him, he used the long stone on them, and broke all the teeth in their vulvas. Then he cohabited with them, and afterward passed safely on. So they started on again.

In the mean time the boy’s mother continued her mourning. When she went into the woods, she would hear the little birds singing about her where she lay down. Their song would say, “Mother, I’m coming back.” When she first heard it, she thought it was her son returning, and she would look up to meet him; but when she saw it was only little birds, she would cry all the harder. Then, when she would go back to camp at night, Ayas’i would burn her again. At last she became so down-hearted that she would pay no attention to the birds, who said, “Mother, I’m coming back.”

At last one day the boy, after passing all the trials, did come back; and the Fox-Woman guided him to where his mother lay crying. When he saw her, he cried, “Mother, I’m coming!” but she would not look up, thinking it was only the birds mocking her grief. Then the boy went up to her, and she saw him. He beheld her face, all burnt and scorched. “What has caused your face to be burnt?” he asked. “Your father did it. He says my son will never come back,” she replied. “Well,” said the son, “Go to camp, and tell Ayas’i that I am back.”

So they went along back to the camp. When Ayas’i heard the woman coming again, he jumped up to get coals of fire to throw on her, as usual. “Your son will never come back!” he cried. “Yes, he is back now!” Ayas’i was so surprised that he dropped the fire; and when he looked, there stood his son. So the son said to his father, “You have been cruel to me and to my mother, all for nothing. You left me on an island, and I am back. Now I will be cruel to you. You shall creep all the days of your life.” So he turned Ayas’i into a frog. He then said to his mother, “You shall be the best-looking bird in the world. People will never kill you. You shall be the robin.” And he turned his mother into a robin, the handsomest bird in the world. That is the origin of the frog and the robin. That is the end.

The starving Indians

A starving band of Indians neglected to store food and faced starvation until one old man, who had preserved provisions, offered a morsel to a hungry child. Using cunning, he convinced the boy’s father to give his daughter in marriage in exchange for the entire supply, hosted feasts, and taught the community deer-snaring. Through this trick and the snares, the band transitioned from scarcity to abundance.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
Smithsonian Institution
Bureau of American Ethnology
Annual Report 11, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Sacrifice: The boy’s family gives up their daughter in marriage as the price for vital provisions.

Family Dynamics: Complex relationships unfold as the father, mother, and sister are drawn into the old man’s scheme.

Cunning and Deception: The old man’s deliberate ruses orchestrate feasts and teach the band self-sufficiency.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

A band of Indians, who had neglected to store away a supply of food for a time of scarcity, were upon the point of starvation. An old man who lived at a little distance from the camping place of the band, had wisdom to lay by a good store of dry meat and a number of cakes of fat, so that he had an abundance while the others were nearly famished. They applied to him, begging for food, but they were refused the least morsel. One day, however, an old man came to him asking for food for his children. The man gave him a small piece of meat. When the man’s children ate this food they began to cry for more. The mother told her little boy to stop crying. He persisted in his clamor until his mother asked him: “Why do you not go to the old U’sets kwa ne po?” (One whose neck wrinkles into folds when he sits down).

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This old man heard the mother tell her child to go to him, and muttered to himself, “That is just what I want.”

The little boy went to the old man’s tent door, and lifting aside the flap, said: “I want to come in.” He went in and the old man addressed the boy by his own name, saying: “What do you want, U’ sets kwa ne po? in such a kindly voice that the boy felt assured. The boy said: “I am very hungry and want some food.” The old man inquired in an astonished voice: “Hungry? and your meat falling down from the stage!” The old man bade the boy sit down, while he went out to the stage and selected some choice portions and brought them into the tent and gave them to the boy. The old man then asked the boy if he had a sister. The boy said that he had a father, mother, and one sister. After the boy had finished eating, the old man directed the buy to come with him and see the meat stages. They went out and the old man said: “Now, go home and tell your father that all of this food will belong to you if he will give me his daughter.” The little boy went home and repeated what the old man had said. The father signified his willingness to give his daughter in marriage to the old man. The boy returned to the old man and stated that his father was willing to give away his daughter. The old man immediately went out, took some meat and fat from the stage, and then cooked three large kettles of food. When this was done he selected a suit of clothing for a man and two suits for women. He placed the nicer one of the latter near his own seat, and the other two suits directly on the opposite side of the fireplace (the place of honor in the tent). He then told the little boy to call all the Indians, adding: “There is your father’s coat, your mother’s dress, and your sister’s dress. Tell your parents to sit where they see the clothing,” pointing to the clothes intended for them, and the sister to sit near the old man, pointing to his own place. The boy ran out and apprised the people, together with his own relations. The boy returned to the old man’s tent before the guests arrived. The boy’s father came first, and the boy said: “Father, there is your coat.” The mother then entered, and the boy said: “Mother, there is your dress.” The sister then entered, and the boy pointed to the dress, saying: “Sister, there is your dress.” All the other Indians then came in and seated themselves. They took two kettles of meat and broke the fat into pieces and feasted until all was consumed. The old man helped his wife, her father, mother, and brother to the contents of the other kettle. When all the food was finished the old man said to the boy, “U’ sets kwa ne po, go and set your deer snares.” The old man went with him to find a suitable place. They could find only the tracks of deer made several days previously. They, however, set thirty snares and returned home. The next morning they all went to the snares and found a deer in each one. The people began to skin the deer and soon had a lot of meat ready for cooking. They began to feast, and continued until all was done. By this time a season of abundance had arrived.

The starving wolverene

Facing starvation, a wolverene seeks aid from his wolf brothers on a journey filled with trials. The wolves conjure tents, fires, and meals, then trick him into eating harmful fat until he falls ill. Armed with the secret of fire-making, he tries to return home, but his greed and disobedience—discarding flint and looking back—lead the wolves to ruin his provisions, teaching harsh lessons of trust.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
Smithsonian Institution
Bureau of American Ethnology
Annual Report 11, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Quest: The wolverene embarks on a perilous journey to find his wolf brothers and secure food for his family.

Trials and Tribulations: He faces repeated tests, from gathering firewood to resisting the wolves’ mysterious hospitality.

Cunning and Deception: The wolves repeatedly trick him with bark, hidden tents, and a sabotaged sled.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

On the approach of winter a wolverene, which had been so idle during the summer that he had failed to store up a supply of provisions for himself, his wife, and children, began to feel the pangs of hunger. The cold days and snowstorms were now at hand. The father one day told his wife that he would go and try to discover the place where his brothers, the wolves, were passing the winter and from them he would endeavor to procure some food. The wife desired him not to remain away long, else the children would starve to death. He assured her that he would be gone no longer than four days, and made preparations to start early on the succeeding morning. In the morning he started and continued his journey until near nightfall, when he came to the bank of a river.

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On looking at the ice which covered its surface he descried a pack of wolves ascending the river at a rapid rate. Behind these were four others, which were running at a leisurely gait. He soon overtook the latter group, and was perceived by one of these old wolves, which remarked to the others, “There is our brother, the wolverene, coming.” The animal soon joined the wolves and told them that he was starving, and asked for food. The wolves replied that they had none, but that the wolves in advance were on the track of some deer and would soon have some. The wolverene inquired where they would camp for the night. They told him to continue with them on the track of the others until they came to a mark on the river bank. The wolves, accompanied by the wolverene, continued their way until one of the old wolves called attention to the sign on the bank and proposed they should go up to it and await the return of the others. They went up and began to gather green twigs to make a clean floor in the bottom of the tent. This was no sooner done than the young wolves (the hunters) returned and began to put up the tent poles. The old wolves said they themselves would soon have the tent covering in place. The wolverene was astonished at what he saw and wondered whence they would procure the tenting and tire. The old wolves laughed as they observed his curiosity, and one of them remarked, “Our brother wonders where you will get the tent cover from.” The wolverene replied, “I did not say that; I only said my brothers will soon have up a nice and comfortable tent for me.” The wolves then sent him off to collect some dry brush with which to make a fire. When he returned the tent was already on the poles. He stood outside holding the brush in his arms. One of the wolves told him to bring the wood inside the tent. He entered and gave the brush to one of the young wolves (the leader of the hunters). The leader placed the brush in position to create a good fire, and while that was being done the wolverene wondered how they would start the fire. One of the old wolves remarked, “Our brother wonders where and how you will get the fire.” He made no reply, as one of the young wolves (the leader) took up a kettle and went outside to get some snow to melt for water, and returned with it full of snow. He set the kettle down and sprang quickly over the pile of brush and it started into a blaze in an instant. It was now an opportunity for the wolverene to wonder whence should come the supply of meat to boil. One of the old wolves said, “Our brother wonders where you will get some meat to cook for supper.” One of the young wolves went out and brought in a brisket of deer’s meat. As soon as the wolverene saw the meat he asserted that he did not wonder about the source of the supply of meat, but that he only wished there was some meat ready for cooking. The meat was cut up and placed in the kettle and when it was ready it was served out. The choicest portions were selected for the wolverene and placed before him with the injunction to eat all of it. He endeavored to consume it, but the quantity was too great even for him. He, having finished his meal, was about to place the remainder on one of the poles when a wolf, observing his action, told him not to place it there or else the meat would change into bark. He then laid it down on a piece of clean brushwood and when he suspected the eyes of the wolves were not turned toward him he stealthily inserted the portion of meat between the tenting and the pole. The wolves saw his action and in a few minutes the wolverene became very sleepy and soon retired. One of the wolves carefully displaced the meat from the pole, where the wolverene had put it, and thrust in its stead a piece of bark. In the morning when the wolverene awakened his first thought was of the remnant of food. He reached up for it and found nothing but the piece of bark. The wolves were on the alert and one of them said, “Did I not tell you it would change into bark if you put the meat in that place?” The wolverene hung his head and answered, “Yes,” and again laid down to sleep. By the time he awakened the wolves had a second kettle of meat cooked. They desired the wolverene to arise and eat his breakfast. The leader told him to hasten with his meal, as he had discovered some fresh deer tracks. The wolverene thought he would watch how they broke camp and see where they put the tentings. He went off a few steps and while his back was turned the tent disappeared and he failed to discover where it was secreted. The animals then started off, the young ones taking the lead while the four old ones and the wolverene followed leisurely behind. After they had crossed the river the wolverene began to wonder where they would halt for the night. One of the old wolves told him they must follow the track of the leader and they would come to the sign made for the site of the camp. They continued for the entire day, but just before sundown they came across the bones of a freshly killed deer from which every vestige of meat had been removed, apparently eaten by wolves; so the wolverene thought he would stand a poor chance of getting a supper if that was the way they were going to act. The party continued on the track and soon came upon the mark for the tent site. The wolverene was glad to rest, but sat down and began to look ahead in the distance for the returning hunters. After a few minutes he looked around and saw the tent standing there. The wolves then sent the wolverene for dry brush, while they gathered green branches for the tent floor. He brought so small a quantity that it would not suffice. The young wolves returned at the same time and they directed him to again procure some brush. When he returned he found they had stripped all the fat off of the deer meat, although, he had not seen them bring any when they returned, and placed it around the inside edges of the tent. The brush was put down and again the leader jumped over it and a bright, crackling fire started up. The wolves then said to themselves in a low tone of voice: “Let us go outside and see what our brother will do when he is left alone with the fat.” They went outside and immediately the wolverene selected the nicest and largest piece of fat and began to swallow it. The wolves at the same moment inquired of him: “Brother, are there any holes in the tent cover?” His mouth was so full, in his haste to swallow the fat, that it nearly choked him. They repeated their inquiry and the wolverene gasped out the answer, “yes.” The wolves then said: “Let us go inside.” The wolverene sprang away from the fat and sat down by the tire. They put on a large kettle of meat and soon had their supper ready. They gave the wolverene all the fattest portions they could find. Having eaten so much of the frozen fat he became so violently ill, when the hot food melted the cold fat in his stomach, that he vomited a long time, and was so weak that he became chilly and shivered so much that he could not sleep. He asked for a blanket, but one of the wolves placed his own bushy tail on the body of the wolverene to keep him warm. The wolverene shook it off and exclaimed: “I do not want your foul-smelling tail for a blanket.” So the wolf gave him a nice and soft skin blanket to sleep under. When he awakened he announced his intention to return to his family, as they would soon be dead from hunger. One of the old wolves directed the younger ones to make up a sledload of meat for the wolverene to take home with him. The wolf did so, but made the load so large and long that the wolverene could not see the rear end of the sled. When it was ready they told him of it, and, as he was about to start, he requested they would give him some fire, as he could not make any without. The leader asked how many nights he would be on the journey homeward. He answered, three nights. The wolf told him to lie down in the snow. He did so and the wolf jumped over his body three times, but strictly enjoined upon him not to look back at the sled as he was going along. The wolverene promised he would comply with his instructions. After the animal had started and got some little distance from the camp of the wolves he thought of the peculiarly strange things he had witnessed while among those animals; and, to test himself, he concluded to try the method of making a fire. He stopped, gathered a quantity of dry brush and placed it as he had seen the wolves arrange it. He then sprang over it and a huge blaze gave evidence of the power within him. He was so astonished that he resolved to camp there. He melted some snow and drank the water and retired to rest, without having looked at the sled. The next morning he started early and made his camp before sunset, as he was very tired. He gathered some brush and made the fire by jumping over the pile of fuel. His supper was only some melted snow which he drank and retired. In the morning he started to continue his journey homeward and still had not seen the sled which he was dragging. As he was ready to start he was so confident of his ability to create fire that he threw away his flint and steel. He traveled all day until toward sunset he was so fatigued that he concluded to make his camp for the night. He was so elated with his newly acquired faculty of making fire that he eagerly gathered a great quantity of dried twigs and branches, until a large heap was before him. He jumped over it, and turned round to see the flames creep up and watch the sparks fly. There was not a sign of a blaze or a spark to meet his gaze. He again jumped over it, and again, until he was so exhausted that he could not clear the top of the pile, and at last he knocked the top of it over, as his failing strength did not enable him to avoid it. The only thing left for him to do was to return for his flint and steel, which he had so exultingly thrown aside. The animal berated himself soundly for having done such a silly trick. Not having seen the sled he was surprised to find how quickly he regained the site of the camp of the previous night. Having recovered his flint and steel he returned, and soon had a fire started; but it was now near daylight. He resolved to start on his journey as soon as he had some water melted for a drink. He began to think how quickly he had made the trip for his flint and steel, and concluded that the great length of the sled had been purposely made to cause him unnecessary fatigue, as it could not be so very heavy, or else that he must be extraordinarily strong. He determined to examine it, and did so. He could not see the farther end of the load. He flattered himself that he was so very strong, and concluded to continue his journey. He attempted to start the sled, and found he could not move it in the least. He upbraided himself for permitting his curiosity to get the better of his sense. He removed a portion of dry meat and a bundle of fat, and made them into a load to carry on his back. He placed the remainder on a stage, and was about ready to start homeward to his wife and children, whom he believed must be by this time nearly dead from starvation.

He put the pack of meat on his back and set out. That evening he arrived at his home, and as soon as his wife heard him her heart was glad. He entered and informed the family that he had brought home a quantity of meat and fat, and had procured so much as to be unable to carry it all at once. His wife begged him to fetch her a piece of meat, as she was nearly starved. He went out and brought in a large piece of fat. The wife devoured such a quantity of it that she became very ill, and suffered all through the night. In the morning the wolverene stated he would return for the meat which he had stored away the previous day. He started in the early morning, so as to return by daylight.

As soon as the wolverene looked upon the sled loaded with meat the spell was broken. One of the old wolves ordered the young wolves to go and destroy the meat and fat which the wolverene had left on the stage. They eagerly set out on the track of the sled, and soon saw the staging where the wolverene had stored the remainder of the food. When they came up to it they fell to and devoured all but a few scraps of it. The wolves then went away, and in a few hours the wolverene returned. He saw what had happened and exclaimed: “My brothers have ruined me! My brothers have ruined me!” He knew it had been done because he had looked back at the sled, although strictly enjoined upon not to do so under any circumstance. He gathered up the fragments which the wolves had left and returned home. When he arrived there he informed his wife that his brothers had ruined him, because they had eaten all the meat which he had stored away while out hunting.

Fate of two Indian men

Two hunters endured a fruitless fall and winter hunt and, guided by a dream of porcupines, secured meat but later abandoned a bear’s carcass after sampling its fat. Wolves devoured it while they were away, provoking regret. On their final journey back, desperate for water, their lips froze to the creek’s ice, and they perished in the cold, their tale a cautionary lesson in prudence.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
Smithsonian Institution
Bureau of American Ethnology
Annual Report 11, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Conflict with Nature: They struggle against the elements, hunger, wild animals, and the deadly cold throughout their expedition.

Trials and Tribulations: The men face a succession of hardships—failed hunts, near‐freezing, wolves stealing meat, and icy mishaps.

Dreams and Visions: A prophetic dream of porcupines directly leads them to their first source of sustenance.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

Two Indian men who had gone off for the fall and winter’s hunt were living by themselves. They were very unsuccessful in procuring furs and food, so that when the depths of winter had approached and the cold was intense they resolved to seek the camp of their friends. They were provided with nothing but bows and arrows. The next morning they started off and tramped all day without seeing a living thing. They made their camp and lamented they had no food.

They finally prepared to sleep, when one of them remarked to the other, “Tonight I shall dream of porcupines.” They slept, and in the morning the one related that he had seen a lot of porcupines around the tent while he was dreaming.

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They determined to proceed, but the one finally thought if they would stop there for the day and succeeding night they would have all the porcupine meat they would want. They remained there that day, and in the middle of the night they were aroused by a noise which proved to be porcupines gnawing the bark from the tent poles. The one man said, “Slip out and kill some with a stick;” but added, “Go out in your bare feet.” He went out barefooted and killed two or three, and dashed back into the tent with his feet nearly frozen. He stuck his feet into the hot ashes and told the other man to bring in the animals. The other man did so, and began to prepare the flesh for cooking. They ate one of the porcupines, and by daylight were ready to begin their journey. They went idly along, shooting their arrows in sport at anything they could see. They continued this amusement until near sunset, when one exclaimed, “My arrow has struck something; see, it is moving.” The other replied, “What can it be, when it is sticking only in the snow?” The other said he would try and find out what it was. He cautiously examined, and found when he began to dig it out that the arrow had entered the den of a bear. So they scratched away the snow and soon saw a long, black hair sticking out of the hole. He jumped back and. exclaimed, “It is some sort of animal with black hair.” The other replied, “Let us try and get it out. It may be good to eat.” They finally drove the bear out and soon killed it. They began to skin it, which was soon done. One of the men then said, “It is too big and ugly to eat; let us leave it.” The other, however, cut off a large piece of fat and put it on the sled. They then prepared their camp, and when morning came they started off and traveled all day. When night came they made their camp and soon had a huge fire burning. One of the men hung the piece of fat over the fire and the oil soon dripped into the fire. It created such a nice smell that one of them said, “Let us taste the fat; it may be good to eat.” They tasted it and found it so good that they rated each other soundly for being so foolish as to leave such nice flesh so far behind them. They resolved to return for it. So they returned for the carcass of the bear, which was far behind them, and as it had tasted so good they determined to lose no time in starting. They went immediately, although it was now dark and very cold. They came to the place where it had been left and discovered that the wolves and foxes had eaten all the meat, leaving nothing but the bones. They were very angry, and began to lay the blame each on the other for having left it. They regretted they had left such meat for wolves and foxes. They determined to proceed to where they had camped the third time. On the way they became very thirsty, and, stopping at a creek to drink, they drank so long that their lips froze to the ice of the water hole, and they miserably perished by freezing.

The spirit guiding a child left by its parents

A lice-infested boy is left behind by his parents but is saved and lice-picked by the spirit of a dead man. Riding the spirit’s back, he follows his mother’s trail, hunts a hare, and is reunited with his baffled parents. After graciously feeding the spirit, he tracks him across frozen lakes, only to see him depart and, in time, forget his spectral benefactor.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
Smithsonian Institution
Bureau of American Ethnology
Annual Report 11, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Love and Betrayal: The mother’s decision to abandon her infested child, despite her maternal bond, embodies a poignant act of betrayal.

Journey to the Otherworld: The spirit’s intervention transports the boy into a realm beyond the living, guiding him along a supernatural path.

Ancestral Spirits: The benevolent dead man who rescues and mentors the boy represents the influence of forebears on the living.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

An Indian and his wife had but one child, which was so infested with vermin that when the parents contemplated, going to the tents of some distant friends the father advised the mother to leave the child behind. The next morning after the mother had taken down the tent the little boy asked her “Mother, are you not going to put on my moccasins?” the mother replied, “I shall put them on after I have put on my snow-shoes.” The little boy said, “Surely you are not going to leave me!” She said, “No;” but took hold of her sled and started off. The little boy cried out, “Mother, you are leaving me,” and endeavored to overtake her in his bare feet; but the mother soon was out of sight. The little boy began to cry and retraced his steps to the tent place.

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There he cried until the spirit of a dead man came to him and asked, “Where is your mother?” The boy replied, “She has gone away and left me.” “Why did she leave you?” asked the old man. “Because I was so covered with lice,” replied the boy. The spirit said it would remove all of the lice, but three. So it began to pick them off. After this was done the spirit asked, “Where did your mother go?” The boy pointed out her track. The spirit then said to the boy, “Would you like to go to your mother?” The boy answered, “Yes.” The spirit put the boy on his back and started on the path made by the sled of his mother. After a while they came to a tree and in looking at it the boy saw a porcupine sitting among the branches. The boy greatly desired to have the animal. So he said, “Grandfather, I wish you would kill the porcupine.” The old man answered, “It will make too much smoke for me to kill it.” After a time they came across a hare which the boy again desired to have. To this the man assented. So he put the boy down in the snow and soon caught the hare and killed it. It was now becoming dark, so they made their camping place for the night. The spirit gave the boy the hare and told him to cook it. After the meat was cooked the boy asked the old man what parts of the animal he preferred. The old man said “Give me the lungs and kidneys.” The boy gave him those parts and consumed the remainder himself. They laid down to sleep and in the morning they again started on the sled track. About noon they came to the tents of the Indians, and among them was the tent of the father and mother of the little boy. The spirit placed the boy down on the outside near the door of the mother’s tent and told him to go in. The boy entered and saw his father and mother sitting near the fire. The mother in astonishment said, “Husband, is this not our little boy whom we deserted at our late camp?” The husband asked the boy, “Who brought you here?” The little boy answered, “My grandfather.” The mother inquired, “Who is your grandfather?” The father asked, “Where is he now?” The boy replied, “He is sitting outside.” The father asked his wife to look outside and see if any one was there. The woman did so and informed him that “I see some one sitting there, but I do not know who it is.” The spirit replied, “You should call me somebody when you are no one to leave your child to perish.” The husband directed his wife to invite the old man into the tent.

The spirit declined to enter. The father then asked the son to tell him to come in. The boy went out and conducted the old man within the tent. The latter seated himself across the fire (this is intended to mean opposite the door but on the other side of the fire). They slept in the tent that night, and when the little boy awakened he found all the people preparing to snare deer. The people asked the little boy to accompany them. He did so, and when he was ready to start he asked the old man what part of the deer he should bring home for him. The old man replied that he would enjoy the lungs better than any other part. The boy promised to bring a quantity for him on his return in the evening. Toward evening the boy returned loaded with choice bits for the old man who had conducted him to his father and mother. While outside of the tent he called to the old man, saying that he had brought home some food for him. Hearing no reply he entered the tent, and not seeing the man he inquired of his mother where the person was. The mother announced that he had departed, but did not know where he had gone. It was late, but the boy resolved to rise early and follow his track. He was up at daybreak, and finding the track followed it until he observed the spirit crossing a large lake which was frozen over. The boy cried out to the old man to wait for him. The spirit awaited his approach. The boy said to him, “Why did you go away when I had promised you some choice food?” The spirit replied that it could not dwell among living people, as it was only a spirit and that it was returning to its abode. The old man advised the boy to return to his people. The boy did so, but the next morning the desire to see the good old man seized the boy, and again he started to find him. The other people then tied the boy to a tree and he soon forgot his benefactor.

The venturesome hare

A young hare, determined to feed his infirm grandmother, nets a bountiful haul of fish and promises to fetch fire. Commanding whales to bridge a wide river, he reaches the Indians’ camp, only to be trapped in their kettle. Ingeniously igniting his net from above, he escapes their grasp and, with a mighty leap, clears the river—returning home triumphant with both fish and fire.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
Smithsonian Institution
Bureau of American Ethnology
Annual Report 11, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Quest: The hare undertakes the challenging journey of fishing to secure food and fire for his grandmother.

Trickster: He uses his wit to outsmart both nature and the Indians, turning desperate circumstances to his advantage.

Family Dynamics: His actions are driven by loyalty and duty to his elderly, impoverished grandmother.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Naskapi Lore

Learn more about the Naskapi people

A hare, which had lost his parents, lived with his grandmother. One day, feeling very hungry, for they were extremely poor, he asked his grandmother if he could set a net to catch fish. The old woman laughed at the idea of a hare catching fish, but to humor him, she consented, for she was indulgent to him because he was her only charge and looked forward to the time when he should be able to support her by his own exertions, and not to rely on the scanty supplies which she was able to obtain. These were very meager, as she was infirm, and dreaded exposure. She then told him to go and set the net, but added that she had no fire to cook them with, even if he should catch any. The hare promised to procure fire if he caught the fish. He went to set the net in a lake where he knew fish to be plentiful.

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The next morning he went to the net and found it to be so full of fish that he was unable to take it up. He lifted one end and saw there was a fish in every mesh of the net. He shook out some of the fish and then drew out the net. Part of the fish were buried, and a large load taken home. He put the fish down outside of the tent, and went in. He told the old woman to clean the fish and that he would go across the river to the Indians’ tent and get the fire with which to cook them. The old woman was speechless at such proposed rashness, but as he had been able to catch so many fish she refrained remarking on his contemplated project of obtaining fire in the face of such danger. While the old woman was cleaning the fish he went back after the net which he had put out to dry on the shore of the lake.

He folded it up, placed it under his arm, and ran to the edge of the river which was far too wide to jump over. He used his cunning and assembled a number of whales. These animals came puffing up the stream in obedience to his command. He ordered them to arrange themselves side by side across the stream so that he could walk across on their backs. He most dreaded the Indians, but jumped into the water to wet his fur. This being done he sprang from one whale to another until he was safe on the opposite shore. He then laid down in the sand and bade the whales to disperse. Some Indian children soon came playing along the sandy bank and saw the hare lying there. One of the children picked up the hare and started home with it. When the boy arrived and told how he had obtained the hare he was directed to put it in the iron tent (kettle) where there was a bright fire crackling.

The child put down the hare, upon which an old man told the boy to kill the hare. The hare was terribly frightened, but opened a part of one eye to ascertain whether there was any place of exit beside the door. In the top of the tent he observed a large round hole. He then said to himself: “I wish a spark of fire would fall on my net.” Instantly the brands rolled and a great spark fell on the net and began to burn it. The hare was afraid of the fire, so he sprang out of the hole in the apex of the tent. The Indians saw they had been outwitted by a hare, and began to shout and pursue the animal, which attained such speed that when he came to the bank of the river he had not time to recall the whales. He gave an extraordinary leap and cleared the entire expanse of the water. He examined the net and found the fire smouldering. On arrival at his own home he said to his grandmother: “Did I not tell you I would get the fire?” The old woman ventured to inquire how he had crossed the river. He coolly informed her that he had jumped across.