The Man-Worm

In ancient times, a Man-Worm and his son, also a Worm, lived together. The son, guided by his father, used magic to find a wife. He married a beautiful woman but was later killed by a shaman Worm. The father sought revenge, killing villagers with magic until an old woman’s charm caused the sea and ice to destroy him, ending his terror.

Source:
The Eskimo about Bering Strait
by Edward William Nelson
[Smithsonian Institution]
Bureau of American Ethnology
Eighteenth Annual Report
Washington, 1900

► Themes of the story

Supernatural Beings: The protagonists are Man-Worms with magical abilities, highlighting interactions with otherworldly entities.

Revenge and Justice: The father seeks vengeance for his son’s murder, demonstrating the pursuit of retribution.

Conflict with Nature: The old woman’s charm invokes natural forces—rising seas and breaking ice—to defeat the Man-Worm, illustrating a struggle against nature.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

from Kotzebue Sound

In very ancient days there lived a large Worm who was married to a woman, and they had a son who was also a Worm. When the son was fully grown the father told him to go to the middle of the earth plain and there in a small house he would find a wife. The son then used his magic powers and made himself small, so that he could travel faster, and journeyed away. When he came near the small house of which his father had told him, he felt the earth shake and tremble under his feet, and he feared that he would be killed. This happened several times, until finally he reached the house. Here he found that the cause of the shaking of the earth was the talk of an old woman who lived in the house with her daughter. These people received him hospitably, and finding that the girl was very beautiful, he married her.

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After he had lived there four years he remembered his parents and started to go back to visit them, but on the road he was killed by another Man-worm, who was a shaman. In a short time after this the father felt a strong desire to see his son, so he started to go to him. On the way he found the body of his son, and looking about saw a large village close at hand. He went to the spring where the villagers got their water, and making himself small, hid in it, where, by the use of magic, he killed nearly all the people in revenge for his son’s death. When there were only a few people left, an old woman in the village, knowing that some magic was employed against them, worked a strong charm which caused the sea to rise and break the ice upon its surface and carried it over the land until the spring was covered; then the floating ice blocks were dashed together until the Man-worm was ground to pieces and destroyed, so that the people were freed from his magic.

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The Red Bear

An orphan boy, abused by villagers, returns home to his aunt, who crafts a magical red bear from a carved image to avenge his suffering. The bear wreaks havoc on the cruel villagers and others in its path until summoned back by the aunt. She tames the bear, commanding it to harm only in self-defense, thus birthing the lineage of red bears.

Source:
The Eskimo about Bering Strait
by Edward William Nelson
[Smithsonian Institution]
Bureau of American Ethnology
Eighteenth Annual Report
Washington, 1900

► Themes of the story

Revenge and Justice: The aunt creates the red bear to avenge her nephew’s mistreatment, seeking retribution against those who harmed him.

Supernatural Beings: The transformation of a carved image into a living, destructive red bear introduces a supernatural element central to the tale.

Cunning and Deception: The aunt’s clever use of magic to craft the bear demonstrates cunning in addressing the injustice faced by her nephew.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

from Andreivsky, on the Lower Yukon

On the tundra, south of the Yukon mouth, there once lived an orphan boy with his aunt. They were quite alone, and one summer day the boy took his kaiak and traveled away to see where people lived on the Yukon, of whom he had heard. When he came to the river, he traveled up its course until he reached a large village. There he landed and the people ran down to the shore, seized him, broke his kaiak to pieces, tore his clothing from him, and beat him badly.

The boy was kept there until the end of summer, the subject of continual beating and ill treatment from the villagers. In the fall one of the men took pity on him, made him a kaiak, and started him home ward, where he arrived after a long absence.

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When he reached home he saw that a large village had grown up by his aunt’s house. As soon as he landed, he went to his aunt’s house and entered, frightening her very much, for he had been starved and beaten so long that he looked almost like a skeleton.

When his aunt recognized him, she received his story with words of pity, then words of auger at the cruel villagers. When he had finished telling her of his sufferings, she told him to bring her a piece of wood, which he did; this they worked into a small image of an animal with long teeth and long, sharp claws, painting it red upon the sides and white on the throat. Then they took the image to the edge of the creek and placed it in the water, the aunt telling it to go and destroy every one it could find at the village where her boy had been. The image did not move, and the old woman took it out of the water and cried over it, letting her tears fall upon it, and then put it back in the water, saying, “Now, go and kill the bad people who beat my boy.” At this the image floated across the creek and crawled up the other bank, where it began to grow, soon reaching a large size, when it became a red bear. It turned and looked at the old woman until she called out to it to go and spare none.

The bear then went away until he came to the village on the great river. It met a man just going for water and it quickly tore him to pieces; then the bear stayed near this village until he had killed more than half of the people, and the others were preparing to leave it in order to escape destruction. He then swam across the Yukon and went over the tundra to the farther side of Kuskokwim river, killing every one he saw, for the least sign of life seemed to fill him with fury until it was destroyed. From the Kuskokwim the bear turned back, and one day it stood on the creek bank where it had become endowed with life. Seeing the people on the other bank he became filled with fury, tearing the ground with his claws and growling, and began to cross the creek. When the villagers saw this they were much frightened and ran about, saying, “Here is the old woman’s dog; we shall all be killed. Tell the old woman to stop her dog.” And they sent her to meet the bear. The bear did not try to hurt her, but was passing by to get at the other people when she caught it by the hair on its neck, saying, “Do not hurt these people who have been kind to me and have given me food when I was hungry.”

After this she led the bear into her house and, sitting down, told him that he had done her bidding well and had pleased her, but that he must not injure people any more unless they tried to hurt or abuse him. When she had finished telling him this she led him to the door and sent him away over the tundra. Since this time there have always been red bears.

The Red Bear (Ta-ku’-ka)

Pi-tikh’-cho-lik, a skilled hunter, predicts his death and instructs his wife, Ta-ku’-ka, on burial rites. After his death, she discovers him alive with other women, consumed by betrayal and rage. Seeking revenge, she kills his companions and confronts him disguised as a red bear, eventually slaying him. Overcome by bloodlust, Ta-ku’-ka becomes a vengeful, destructive spirit, influencing red bears’ savagery.

Source:
The Eskimo about Bering Strait
by Edward William Nelson
[Smithsonian Institution]
Bureau of American Ethnology
Eighteenth Annual Report
Washington, 1900

► Themes of the story

Love and Betrayal: Ta-ku’-ka’s discovery of her husband’s infidelity leads to feelings of betrayal and a desire for revenge.

Transformation: Ta-ku’-ka’s metamorphosis into a red bear symbolizes her shift from a devoted wife to a vengeful spirit.

Revenge and Justice: Ta-ku’-ka’s actions against her unfaithful husband and his companions reflect themes of retribution and the pursuit of justice for personal wrongs.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

from St. Michael and Norton Sound

On the seashore, near where the village of Pikmiktalik now stands, there once lived the Eskimo hunter Pi-tikh’-cho-lik and his wife Ta-ku’-ka.

The mountains were filled with great herds of reindeer and the sea was full of seals and fish, so that Pi-tikh’-cho-lik brought home an abundance of food and skins.

One fine summer evening Ta-ku’-ka stood on the seashore waiting for her husband’s return. She was uneasy and anxious, as he had remained away much longer than usual on his recent hunting excursions, although he had explained to her that the deer were getting farther back into the mountains and the seals were to be found only farther at sea.

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After a time Ta-ku’-ka went into the house to attend to her children and when she came out again her husband was putting his kaiak on the framework standing by the house.

She asked him many questions about his long stay, but he replied peevishly that he had gone far out to sea and had remained because he did not wish to come home without game. When they went into the house Ta-ku’-ka placed before him different kinds of food, prepared as he liked it best, but he ate very little, and seemed gloomy and sad. His wife urged him to tell her the cause of his sadness, and at last he said, “If you must know the cause of my sadness, hear it. I feel that I am going to die, and the third day from now will be the time of my death.”

At this Ta-ku’-ka began to cry very bitterly, but he stopped her, saying, “Do not cry and make me unhappy while I am with you, but hear my last wishes. When I am dead you must put my kaiak into the water and fasten it to the shore; lay my paddle, spears, and lines upon it in their proper places; dress my body in the waterproof shirt and put me into the kaiak, fastening the shirt to the manhole as you have seen me do when going to sea. Every evening for three days place fish, deer fat, and berries before my body that my inna may be satisfied. Do you promise me this?” Ta-ku’-ka promised and wept silently. Pi-tikh’-cho-lik did not leave the house again, and he died on the third day. Then Ta-ku’-ka cried very much, but did as she had been told. Every morning she saw that the shade had eaten, for all the food before the body was gone. On the fourth morning, when she went to the shore to lament for her dead as usual, she saw that the kaiak with all its contents had disappeared. Then she threw herself upon the ground and lay there for a long time in her sorrow; finally she remembered her children and went back to the house to care for them. For a long time Ta-ku’-ka worked very hard, gathering berries or catching and drying fish to prepare her store of winter food. One day while gathering berries she wandered far from home and went to the top of a mountain; there she looked out over the land and far away saw puffs of smoke drifting upward from the ground. This was the first sign she had ever seen of other people, and she decided to go to see what they were like. After some time she drew near the place and crept softly to the edge of the hill, that fell away sharply on one side to the sea, but sloped gradually toward a portion of the inland side. Near the water were three houses, from one of which came the smoke she had seen.

Here Ta-ku’-ka waited quietly to see what kind of people were there, and soon a woman came out, shading her eyes with one hand and looking out to sea; then she hurried back to the house, calling to someone within. At this two other women came out, and all went down to the water’s edge, where they began to sing a love song and to dance upon the sand facing the sea. Ta-ku’-ka had been so interested in watching these women and their handsome fur garments that she had not noticed anything else, but now the low, pleasant sound of a man’s voice rising in song struck her ear and made her heart beat faster. She looked beyond the women and saw a man urging his kaiak swiftly toward the shore, singing and playfully throwing his seal spear before him, and picking it up as he passed.

When he came near, Ta-ku’-ka recognized the song as one that Pi-tikh’-cho-lik used to sing to her in the old days; then the kaiak man came on shore and the women met him with exclamations of pleasure. Ta-ku’-ka could scarcely believe her eyes when she saw that the man was indeed her husband, whom she had believed to be dead. He went into the house with the women, and Ta-ku’-ka felt a strange, fierce anger in her heart, such as she had never known before. She stood on the hillside listening to the songs and laughter coming from the house until far into the night.

Morning came and Pi-tikh’-cho-lik came out of the house and arranged his hunting gear upon the kaiak. After saying “good-bye” to the women on the shore he paddled out to sea, singing pleasantly. When he was out of sight Ta-ku’-ka went down from the hillside and followed the women into one of the houses; they seemed surprised to see her, but made her welcome, asking her many questions. They admired her face and its color, which was lighter than theirs, also several tattooed lines on her face, one up and down between her eyes and three that extended down across the chin from her lower lip; they were also pleased with the shape of her garments, which were different from theirs. By and by one of the women said, “You are very handsome with the beautiful lines marked on your face; I would give much if you would teach me how to make my face like yours.” Ta-ku’-ka answered, “I will show you how it is done, if I can please you, but it will hurt you and you may not wish to bear the pain.” “I shall not mind the pain,” said the woman, “for I wish to be handsome, as you are, and am ready to bear it.” “Be it as you wish,” said Ta-ku’-ka. “Go into the house and make a fire, and put by it a large clay pot, filled with oil; when the oil boils call me. I will make your face beautiful like mine.” When the woman had thanked hr and had gone to make ready, the other women asked her many questions. “Will it hurt very much!” and “Will she really be as pretty as you are?” and others. To which Ta-ku’-ka replied, “She will not be hurt very much, and she will be prettier even than I.”

In a short time the woman came back, saying that the oil was ready. Ta-ku’-ka then went into the house and told her to kneel before the pot of boiling oil and to bend her face over it. As soon as this was done, Ta-ku’-ka grasped her by the hair and thrust her face down into the hot oil and held it there until the woman was dead, saying, “There, you will always be beautiful now.” Then she laid the body on the bed platform, and covering the face, went back to the other women. During her absence the other two had been talking together, and when she came back they asked her if she had succeeded in making their companion handsome, and Ta-ku’-ka nodded her head.

Then both women said, “We, too, will make you presents if you will make us beautiful,” and she consented. Then all went to the dead woman’s house, and Ta-ku’-ka said to her companions, “Do not disturb your friend; she sleeps now and her face is covered so that nothing will break the charm; when she awakes she will be very handsome.” After this she killed both the other women as she had the first, saying, as she laid them on the ground, “You, too, will be very pretty.” She then made three crosses of sticks and placed them upright in the sand where the women had danced on the shore the evening before, upon which she placed the clothing of the dead women so that a person at a distance would think they were standing there. Then she took a red bearskin and went back to her hiding place in the rocks. Evening came, and the hunter drew near, singing as on the previous night. No answer reached him, but he thought he saw his wives standing on the shore, and although he raised his song in praise of them, they gave no answer. He became angry and stopped his song; then he began to scold and upbraid them, but still they were silent. Landing, he hurried to the silent figures and then on to the nearest house. There and at the second house he found nothing, but in the last he saw his wives as they lay dead, and Ta-ku’-ka heard his cries of sorrow when he saw them.

Pi-tikh’-cho-lik rushed raging from the house, wailing with sorrow, shouting in wild anger, “If any bad spirits have done this, I fear them not. Let them come and try to work their evil upon me. I hate and scorn them.” All remained quiet. “If any evil shade, man or beast, has done this, let it come out from its hiding place,” he shouted, “and dare to face a man who will tear out its heart and eat its blood; oh, miserable good-for-nothing!”

As if in answer, he heard a deep growl coming from the hillside, and there he saw a red bear standing on its hind feet, swaying its body back and forth. This was Ta-ku’-ka, who had placed a flat stone on each side of her body to protect herself from wounds by arrow or spear and had wrapped herself in the bearskin.

Pi-tikh’-cho-lik saw her and thought she was really a bear and began calling every opprobrious name he could think of, while he quickly fitted an arrow to his bow and loosed it. The arrow struck one of the stones and fell harmless, and the bear turned its other side toward him. Again he shot a well aimed arrow, and again it fell harmless. Then the bear rushed down the slope straight at him, and Pi-tikh’-cho-lik’s spear, striking the bear’s side, broke in his hands. In a few moments the bear had thrown him down lifeless and torn out and eaten his heart. Then the fury which had urged Ta-ku’-ka on seemed to leave her and her better feelings began to return. She tried to take off the bearskin, but it closed about her so firmly that she could not.

Suddenly Ta-ku’-ka thought of her children at home, so taking her basket of berries from the hilltop, she started for her dwelling. As she went along she began to be frightened at her strange desire for blood, mingled with the thoughts of her children. Hurrying on she came at last to the house and rushed in. The two children were asleep, and as soon as Ta-ku’-ka saw them a fierce, uncontrollable desire for blood again came over her, so that she at once tore them to pieces. After this she went out and wandered over the earth, filled with a desire to destroy every one she came across.

Up to that time red bears had been harmless, but Ta-ku’-ka filled them with her own rage, so that they have been very savage ever since. Finally she reached Kuskokwim river and was killed by a hunter, whose arrow found its way through a crack that had been made in one of the stones on her side.

Story of the orphan boy

A mistreated orphan boy, subjected to cruelty by his caretakers, finds solace in the kindness of a young girl. Desperate for freedom, he pleads to the man in the moon for help. Granted immense strength after a beating, he exacts revenge on his tormentors, sparing only the girl who aided him. Restored to normal size, he marries her and lives peacefully.

Source:
Ethnology of the Ungava District,
Hudson Bay Territory
by Lucien M. Turner
[Smithsonian Institution]
Bureau of American Ethnology
Eleventh Annual Report, 1889-1890
Washington, 1894

► Themes of the story

Transformation: The boy undergoes a significant change, gaining immense strength after his encounter with the man in the moon.

Divine Intervention: The man in the moon responds to the boy’s plea for help, directly influencing the events that follow.

Revenge and Justice: The boy exacts revenge on his tormentors, bringing justice for the mistreatment he endured.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

This story was obtained from a man from Labrador. The Eskimo assert that this occurred near Ohak (or Okak), now a missionary station. They show the rock, which a little imagination gives the appearance of having dried blood and brains still upon it.

A small boy, who had neither father, mother, nor any living relatives, was dwelling with some people who maltreated him in every way their fancy could suggest. He was kept in the entry way to the hut, like a dog, and was permitted to eat only of the skin of walrus when they had it to give him. At other times they would throw to him what they themselves would not eat. They forbade him to have a knife with which to cut his food, and he was compelled to gnaw the bones like a dog. A little girl, the daughter of the head of the family with whom he lived, would secretly take to him a knife with which to divide the tough skin of the walrus. She also carried food of better quality to him when she could do so clandestinely. These kind attentions pleased him very much, and made him long for an opportunity to escape. But how was he to better his condition when the hand of everybody was raised against him on account of his treatment at home? The little girl who had so often befriended him could not assist him to escape from such a life. He endeavored to lay a plan, but it came to naught. There seemed no help for him. One night he abandoned all hope and threw himself on the ground in despair.

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While there he gazed at the bright moon, and the more intently his gaze was fixed upon it the more he thought he discerned the face of a man in it, and at last he cried to the man to come and help him escape from his miserable life. The man came down from the moon and gave the poor boy a frightful beating, but the more he was beaten the larger he seemed to grow. After awhile he became so strong that he could handle a large rock as easily as he had hitherto handled a little stone. A large, round bowlder from the beach was no more to him than a bullet held in the hand of a strong man.

The moon man then told the boy that he was large enough to take care of himself and do as he pleased with the people who had treated him so badly. With this the two parted, and the moon man went to his hole in the sky, while the boy walked along the beach picking up rocks and tossing them along the shore until the character of the water’s edge was entirely changed. When the boy arrived at the hut it was daylight, for he had tarried so long on the beach testing his strength that the night had slipped away.

The people were terrified when they saw to what enormous proportions the abused boy had grown. He became frenzied the instant he saw his former persecutors, and seizing first one and then the other in his hands dashed them against the rocks. The blood and brains ran in streams. One of the men, seeing his doom, begged for his life and promised his kaiak, spears, sled, and wife if he should be spared. The enraged boy continued the slaughter until only the little girl who had so often befriended him was left. She became his wife, and in the course of a few hours the man, whose name was Kou je yuk, became of a natural size again and passed his life in comfort.

Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq, the cannibal

Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq was a monstrous man known for murder and cannibalism. After killing his sister-in-law, he terrified his wife into fleeing. She deceived him by crafting a decoy, escaping to a nearby village. When Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq pursued her, the villagers protected her and later avenged his crimes. Using cunning, they lured him into exposing his spear and struck him down, ending his reign of terror.

Source:
The Central Eskimo
by Franz Boas
[Bureau of American Ethnology]
Sixth Annual Report
Washington, 1888

► Themes of the story

Trickster: His wife employs cunning to escape, creating a decoy to deceive him.

Revenge and Justice: The villagers avenge his crimes by orchestrating his demise.

Supernatural Beings: Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq’s monstrous nature aligns with encounters involving formidable entities.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq was a very huge and bad man, who had committed many murders and eaten the victims after he had cut them up with his knife. Once upon a time his sister-in-law came to visit his wife, but scarcely had she entered the hut before Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq killed her and commanded his wife to cook her. His wife was very much frightened, fearing that she herself would be the next victim, and resolved to make her escape. When Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq had left to go hunting she gathered heather, stuffed her jacket with it, and placed the figure in a sitting position upon the bed. Then she ran away as fast as she could and succeeded in reaching a village.

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When her husband came home and saw the jacket he believed that it was a stranger who had come to visit him and stabbed him through the body. When he discovered, however, that his wife had deceived and left him, he fell into a passion and pursued her.

He came to the village and said: “Have you seen my wife? She has run away.” The Inuit did not tell him that she was staying with them, but concealed her from his wrath. At last Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq gave her up for lost and returned home.

The Inuit, however, resolved to revenge the many outrages which he had wrought upon them. They went to visit him and met him on the ice just below the hut. When he told them he was going bear hunting they said: “Let us see your spear.” This spear had a stout and sharp walrus tusk for a point. “Ah,” said they, “that is good for bear hunting; how sharp it is. You must hit him just this way.” And so saying they struck his brow, the point of the spear entering his brain, and then cut the body up with their knives.

Qaudjaqdjuq

This tale recounts the transformation of Qaudjaqdjuq, a mistreated orphan boy, into the mighty Qaudjaqdjuaq. Tormented by villagers and denied even basic kindness, his fortunes change when the man in the moon, a protector of orphans, intervenes. Through trials of strength and endurance, Qaudjaqdjuq gains incredible power. He returns to confront his tormentors, punishing the cruel and sparing the kind, ultimately becoming a renowned hunter and hero.

Source:
The Central Eskimo
by Franz Boas
[Bureau of American Ethnology]
Sixth Annual Report
Washington, 1888

► Themes of the story

Transformation: Qaudjaqdjuq evolves from a mistreated orphan into a powerful figure, highlighting themes of personal growth and change.

Divine Intervention: The man in the moon, acting as a protector of orphans, intervenes to empower Qaudjaqdjuq, showcasing the influence of supernatural forces in human affairs.

Revenge and Justice: Upon gaining strength, Qaudjaqdjuq returns to his village to confront his tormentors, punishing the cruel and sparing the kind, reflecting themes of retribution and the restoration of moral order.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

A long time ago there was a poor little orphan boy who had no protector and was maltreated by all the inhabitants of the village. He was not even allowed to sleep in the hut, but lay outside in the cold passage among the dogs, who were his pillows and his quilt. Neither did they give him any meat, but flung old, tough walrus hide at him, which he was compelled to eat without a knife. A young girl was the only one who pitied him. She gave him a very small piece of iron for a knife, but bade him conceal it well or the men would take it from him. He did so, putting it into his urethra. Thus he led a miserable life and did not grow at all, but remained poor little Qaudjaqdjuq.

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He did not even dare to join the plays of the other children, as they also maltreated and abused him on account of his weakness.

When the inhabitants assembled in the singing house Qaudjaqdjuq used to lie in the passage and peep over the threshold. Now and then a man would lift him by the nostrils into the hut and give him the large urine vessel to carry out. It was so large and heavy that he was obliged to take hold of it with both hands and his teeth. As he was frequently lifted by the nostrils they grew to be very large, though he remained small and weak.

At last the man in the moon, [the protector of orphans] who had seen how badly the men behaved towards Qaudjaqdjuq, came down to help him. He harnessed his dog. Tirie’tiang to his sledge and drove down.

When near the hut he stopped and cried, “Qaudjaqdjuq, come out.” Qaudjaqdjuq answered, “I will not come out. Go away!” But when he had asked him a second and a third time to come out, he complied, though he was very much frightened. Then the man in the moon went with him to a place where some large boulders were lying about and, having whipped him, asked, “Do you feel stronger now?” Qaudjaqdjuq answered: “Yes, I feel stronger.” “Then lift yon boulder,” said he. As Qaudjaqdjuq was not yet able to lift it, he gave him another whipping, and now all of a sudden he began to grow, the feet first becoming of an extraordinary size. Again the man in the moon asked him: “Do you feel stronger now?” Qaudjaqdjuq answered: “Yes, I feel stronger;” but as he could not yet lift the stone he was whipped once more, after which he had attained a very great strength and lifted the boulder as if it were a small pebble. The man in the moon said: “That will do. Tomorrow morning I shall send three bears; then you may show your strength.” He returned to the moon, but Qaudjaqdjuq, who had now become Qaudjaqdjuaq (the big Qaudjaqdjuq) returned home tossing the stones with his feet and making them fly to the right and to the left. At night he lay down again among the dogs to sleep. Next morning he awaited the bears, and. indeed, three large animals soon made their appearance, frightening all the men, who did not dare to leave the huts.

Then Qaudjaqdjuaq put on his boots and ran down to the ice. The men who looked out of the window hole said, “Look here, is not that Qaudjaqdjuq? The bears will soon make way with him.” But he seized the first by its hind legs and smashed its head on an iceberg, near which it happened to stand. The other one fared no better; the third, however, he carried up to the village and slew some of his persecutors with it. Others he pressed to death with his hands or tore off their heads, crying: “That is for abusing me; that is for your maltreating me.” Those whom he did not kill ran away, never to return. Only a few who had been kind to him while he had been poor little Qaudjaqdjuq were spared, among them the girl who had given him the knife. Qaudjuqdjuaq lived to be a great hunter and traveled all over the country, accomplishing many exploits.

Origin of the narwhal

A blind Inuit boy, mistreated by his mother despite his past contributions, regains sight with the help of a loon. Discovering his mother’s deceit over a bear he had killed, he becomes a skilled hunter and seeks revenge. Overcome with guilt after transforming his mother into a narwhal, he and his sister flee, facing dangers before finding refuge with a kind man who reshapes their futures.

Source:
The Central Eskimo
by Franz Boas
[Bureau of American Ethnology]
Sixth Annual Report
Washington, 1888

► Themes of the story

Transformation: Central to the narrative is the metamorphosis of the mother into a narwhal, symbolizing change and the consequences of one’s actions.

Revenge and Justice: The son’s retribution against his mother’s deceit and mistreatment highlights the pursuit of justice and the moral complexities of revenge.

Supernatural Beings: The loon’s mystical intervention to restore the boy’s sight introduces elements of the supernatural, emphasizing themes of healing and guidance from otherworldly entities.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

A long, long time ago a widow lived with her daughter and her son in a hut. When the boy was quite young he made a how and arrows of walrus tusks and shot birds, which they ate. Before he was grown up he accidentally became blind.

From that moment his mother maltreated him in every way. She never gave him enough to eat, though he had formerly added a great deal to their sustenance, and did not allow her daughter, who loved her brother tenderly, to give him anything.

Thus they lived many years and the poor boy was very unhappy.

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Once upon a time a polar bear came to the hut and thrust his head right through the window. They were all very much frightened and the mother gave the boy his bow and arrows that he might kill the animal. But he said, “I cannot see the window and I shall miss him.” Then the sister leveled the bow and the boy shot and killed the bear. The mother and sister went out and took the carcass down and skinned it.

After they had returned into the hut they told the boy that he had missed the bear, which had run away when it had seen him taking his bow and arrows. The bad mother had strictly ordered her daughter not to tell that the bear was dead, and she did not dare to disobey. The mother and the daughter ate the bear and had an ample supply of food, while the boy was almost starving. Sometimes, when the mother had gone away, the girl gave her brother something to eat, as she loved him dearly.

One day a loon flew over the hut and observing the poor blind boy it resolved to restore his eyesight. It sat down on the top of the roof and cried, “Come out, boy, and follow me.” When he heard this he crept out and followed the bird, which flew along to a lake. There it took the boy and dived with him to the bottom. When they had risen again to the surface it asked, “Can you see anything?” The boy answered, “No, I cannot yet see.” They dived again and staid a long time in the water. When they emerged, the bird asked, “Can you see now?” The boy answered, “I see a dim shimmer.” Then they dived the third time and staid very long under water. When they had risen to the surface the boy had recovered his eyesight altogether.

He was very glad and thankful to the bird, which told him to return to the hut. Then he found the skin of the bear he had killed drying in the warm rays of the- sun. He got very angry and cut it into small pieces. He entered the hut and asked his mother: “From whom did you get the bearskin I saw outside of the hut?” The mother was frightened when she found that her son had recovered his eyesight, and prevaricated. She said, “Come here, I will give you the best I have; but I am very poor; I have no supporter; come here, eat this, it is very good.” The boy, however, did not comply and asked again, “From whom did you get yon bearskin I saw outside the hut?” Again she prevaricated; but when she could no longer evade the question she said, “A boat came here with many men in it, who left it for me.”

The boy did not believe the story, but was sure that it was the skin of the bear he had killed during the winter. However, he did not say a word. His mother, who was anxious to conciliate him, tried to accommodate him with food and clothing, but he did not accept anything.

He went to the other Inuit who lived in the same village, made a spear and a harpoon of the same pattern he saw in use with them, and began to catch white whales. In a short time he had become an expert hunter.

By and by he thought of taking revenge on his mother. He said to his sister, “Mother abused me when I was blind and has maltreated you for pitying me; we will revenge ourselves on her.” The sister agreed and he planned a scheme for killing the mother. When he went to hunt white whales he used to wind the harpoon line round his body and, taking a firm footing, hold the animal until it was dead. Sometimes his sister accompanied him and helped him to hold the line.

One day he told his mother to go with him and hold his line. When they came to the beach he tied the rope round her body and asked her to keep a firm footing. She was rather anxious, as she had never done this before, and told him to harpoon a small dolphin, else she might not be able to resist the strong pull. After a short time a young animal came up to breathe and the mother shouted, “Kill it, I can hold it;” but the boy answered, “No. it is too large.”

Again a small dolphin came near and the mother shouted to him to spear it; but he said, “No, it is too large.” At last a huge animal rose quite near. Immediately he threw his harpoon, taking care not to kill it, and tossing his mother forward into the water cried out, “That is because you maltreated me; that is because you abused me.” The white whale dragged the mother into the sea, and whenever she rose to the surface she cried, “Louk! Louk!” and gradually she became transformed into a narwhal.

After the young man had taken revenge he began to realize that it was his mother whom he had murdered and he was haunted by remorse, and so was his sister, as she had agreed to the bad plans of her brother. They did not dare to stay any longer in their hut, but left the country and traveled many days and many nights overland. At last they came to a place where they saw a hut in which a man lived whose name was Qitua’jung. He was very bad and had horribly long nails on his fingers. The young man, being very thirsty, sent his sister into the hut to ask for some water. She entered and said to Qitua’jung, who sat on the bed place, “My brother asks for some water;” to which Qitua’jung responded, “There it stands behind the lamp. Take as much as you like.” She stooped to the bucket, when he jumped up and tore her back with his long nails. Then she called to her brother for help, crying, ‘”Brother, brother, that man is going to kill me.” The young man ran to the hut immediately, broke down the roof, and killed the bad man with his spear.

Cautiously he wrapped up his sister in hares’ skins, put her on his back, and traveled on. He wandered over the land for many days, until he came to a hut in which a man lived whose name was Iqignang. As the young man was very hungry, he asked him if he might eat a morsel from the stock of deer meat put up in the entrance of the hut. Iqignang answered, “Don’t eat it, don’t eat it.” Though he had already taken a little bit, he immediately stopped. Iqignang was very kind to the brother and sister, however, and after a short time he married the gull, who had recovered from her wounds, and gave his former wife to the young man.

Kiviung

An old woman, a powerful angakoq, transforms her tormented grandson into a seal to outwit abusive villagers, ultimately causing their demise in a storm. Kiviung, a kind man spared from the chaos, embarks on a perilous journey, encountering witches, betrayal, and supernatural events. After surviving many trials and strange encounters, he returns home to find his son grown into a skilled hunter and his wife seeking reconciliation.

Source:
The Central Eskimo
by Franz Boas
[Bureau of American Ethnology]
Sixth Annual Report
Washington, 1888

► Themes of the story

Transformation: Central to the narrative is the grandmother’s magical transformation of her grandson into a seal, showcasing themes of change and adaptation.

Revenge and Justice: The grandmother’s act of turning her grandson into a seal leads to the demise of the abusive villagers, highlighting the pursuit of justice against wrongdoing.

Quest: Kiviung’s journey, filled with perilous encounters and supernatural challenges, embodies the classic quest motif, emphasizing personal growth and resilience.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As she had no husband and no son to take care of her and the boy, they were very poor, the boy’s clothing being made of skins of birds which they caught in snares. When the boy would come out of the hut and join his playfellows, the men would laugh at him and tear his outer garment. Only one man, whose name was Kiviung, was kind to the young boy; but he could not protect him from the others. Often the lad came to his grandmother crying and weeping, and she always consoled him and each time made him a new garment. She entreated the men to stop teasing the boy and tearing his clothing, but they would not listen to her prayer.

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At last she got angry and swore she would take revenge upon his abusers, and she could easily do so, as she was a great angakoq. She commanded her grandson to step into a puddle which was on the floor of the hut, telling him what would happen and how he should behave. As soon as he stood in the water the earth opened and he sank out of sight, but the next moment he rose near the beach as a yearling seal with a beautiful skin and swam about lustily. The men had barely seen the seal when they took to their kayaks, eager to secure the pretty animal. But the transformed boy quickly swam away, as his grandmother had told him, and the men continued in pursuit. Whenever he rose to breathe he took care to come up behind the kayaks, where the men could not get at him with their harpoons; there, however, he splashed and dabbled in order to attract their attention and lure them on. But before any one could turn his kayak he had dived again and swam away. The men were so interested in the pursuit that they did not observe that they were being led far from the coast and that the land was now altogether invisible.

Suddenly a gale arose; the sea foamed and roared and the waves destroyed or upset their frail vessels. After all seemed to be drowned the seal was again transformed into the lad, who went home without wetting his feet. There was nobody now to tear his clothing, all his abusers being dead.

Only Kiviung, who was a great angakoq and had never abused the boy, had escaped the wind and waves. Bravely he strove against the wild sea, but the storm did not abate. After he had drifted for many days on the wide sea, a dark mass loomed up through the mist. His hope revived and he worked hard to reach the supposed land. The nearer he came, however, the more agitated did the sea become, and he saw that he had mistaken a wild, black sea, with raging whirlpools, for land. Barely escaping he drifted again for many days, but the storm did not abate and he did not see any land. Again he saw a dark mass looming up through the mist, but he was once more deceived, for it was another whirlpool which made the sea rise in gigantic waves.

At last the storm moderated, the sea subsided, and at a great distance he saw the land. Gradually he came nearer and following the coast he at length spied a stone house in which a light was burning. He landed and entered the house. Nobody was inside but an old woman whose name was Arnaitiang. She received him kindly and at his request pulled off his boots, slippers, and stockings and dried them on the frame hanging over the lamp. Then she went out to light a fire and cook a good meal.

When the stockings were dry, Kiviung tried to take them from the frame in order to put them on, but as soon as he extended his hand to touch them the frame rose out of his reach. Having tried several times in vain, he called Arnaitiang and asked her to give him back the stockings. She answered: “Take them yourself; there they are; there they are” and went out again. The fact is she was a very bad woman and wanted to eat Kiviung.

Then he tried once more to take hold of his stockings, but with no better result. He called again for Arnaitiang and asked her to give him the boots and stockings, whereupon she said: “Sit down where I sat when you entered my house; then you can get them.” After that she left him again. Kiviung tried it once more, but the frame rose as before and he could not reach it.

Now he understood that Arnaitiang meditated mischief; so he summoned his tornaq, a huge white bear, who arose roaring from under the floor of the house. At first Arnaitiang did not hear him, but as Kiviung kept on conjuring the spirit came nearer and nearer to the surface, and when she heard his loud roar she rushed in trembling with fear and gave Kiviung what he had asked for. “Here are your boots.” she cried; “here are your slippers; here are your stockings. I’ll help you put them on.” But Kiviung would not stay any longer with this horrid witch and did not even dare to put on his boots, but took them from Arnaitiang and rushed out of the door. He had barely escaped when it clapped violently together and just caught the tail of his jacket, which was torn off. He hastened to his kayak without once stopping to look behind and paddled away. He had only gone a short distance before Arnaitiang, who had recovered from her fear, came out swinging her glittering woman’s knife and threatening to kill him. He was nearly frightened to death and almost upset his kayak. However, he managed to balance it again and cried in answer, lifting up his spear: “I shall kill you with my spear.” When Arnaitiang heard these words she fell down terror stricken and broke her knife. Kiviung then observed that it was made of a thin slab of fresh water ice.

He traveled on for many days and nights, following the shore. At last he came to a hut, and again a lamp was burning inside. As his clothing was wet and he was hungry, he landed and entered the house. There he found a woman who lived all alone with her daughter. Her son-in-law was a log of driftwood which had four boughs. Every day about the time of low water they carried it to the beach and when the tide came in it swam away. When night came again it returned with eight large seals, two being fastened to every bough. Thus the timber provided its wife, her mother, and Kiviung with an abundance of food. One day, however, after they had launched it as they had always done, it left and never returned. After a short interval Kiviung married the young widow. Now he went sealing every day himself and was very successful. As he thought of leaving some day, he was anxious to get a good stock of mittens (that his hands might keep dry during the long journey?). Every night after returning from hunting he pretended to have lost his mittens. In reality he had concealed them in the hood of his jacket.

After a while the old woman became jealous of her daughter, for the new husband of the latter was a splendid hunter and she wished to marry him herself. One day when he was away hunting, she murdered her daughter, and in order to deceive him she removed her daughter’s skin and crept into it, thus changing her shape into that of the young woman.

When Kiviung returned, she went to meet him, as it had been her daughter’s custom, and without exciting any suspicion. But when he entered the hut and saw the bones of his wife he at once became aware of the cruel deed and of the deception that had been practiced and fled away.

He traveled on for many days and nights, always following the shore. At last he again came to a hut where a lamp was burning. As his clothing was wet and he was hungry, he landed and went up to the house. Before entering it occurred to him that it would be best to find out first who was inside. He therefore climbed up to the window and looked through the peep hole. On the bed sat an old woman, whose name was Aissivang (spider). When she saw the dark figure before the window she believed it was a cloud passing the sun, and as the light was insufficient to enable her to go on with her work she got angry. With her knife she cut away her eyebrows, ate them, and did not mind the dripping blood, but sewed on. When Kiviung saw this he thought that she must be a very bad woman and turned away.

Still he traveled on days and nights. At last he came to a land which seemed familiar to him and soon he recognized his own country. He was very glad when he saw some boats coming to meet him. They had been on a whaling excursion and were towing a great carcass to the village. In the bow of one of them stood a stout young man who had killed the whale. He was Kiviung’s son, whom he had left a small boy and who was now grown up and had become a great hunter. His wife had taken a new husband, but now she returned to Kiviung.

Qauaxsaqssuq

Qauaxsaqssuq, a mistreated boy with a small stature but immense strength, endured harsh conditions and cruelty. Despite his hardships, he became a revered and feared shaman. His strength was legendary—killing three bears with ease. Yet, his life ended tragically when enemies sabotaged his kayak, causing him to drown. His story reflects resilience, power, and the vulnerability of even the strongest against treachery.

Source:
Tales of the Smith Sound Eskimo
by Alfred L. Kroeber
[The American Folklore Society]
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.12, No.46, pp.166-182
July-September, 1899

► Themes of the story

Transformation: Qauaxsaqssuq evolves from a mistreated boy into a revered and feared shaman, showcasing a profound personal change.

Revenge and Justice: After enduring cruelty, Qauaxsaqssuq demonstrates his immense strength, leading to a shift in how others perceive and treat him, reflecting elements of retribution and the restoration of order.

Tragic Flaw: Despite his strength, Qauaxsaqssuq’s trust or perhaps oversight leads to his demise when enemies sabotage his kayak, highlighting a vulnerability that results in his tragic end.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

In Greenland: Kagsagsuk, Kausaksuk, Kausaksuk
In Labrador: Kaujakjuk
In Baffin Land: Qaudjaqdjuq

Qauaxsaqssuq was a boy that was maltreated by all. In the daytime his mother hid him in the beds, but at night she had to take him out. Then he slept either in the doorway or on the roof, over the lamp-hole, in order to get at least a little warmth.

He was generally lifted and carried by the nostrils, the crooked fingers being inserted in them. He always remained small, but his feet grew very large. He was a great angakoq (shaman), and was very strong. Finally he grew tired of the bad treatment he received, and showed his strength, after which, though he never killed any one, he was much dreaded and feared.

Once he was indoors, lying on the bed without any boots on, when a man arrived inquiring for him. “Qauaxsaqssuq has gone into the house over there, and is inside,” he was told.

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Then the man called to Qauaxsaqssuq from outdoors, “Qauaxsaqssuq! Three large bears have come over from the land, and are now on the ice. Come out!” “Yes,” said Qauaxsaqssuq, and hastened to dress and put on his boots. Then he came out and saw the three bears. Holding only a knife in his hand, he ran after them. He had no dogs to harry the bears and bring them to bay, but he soon caught up with them. He first seized the old one and twisted off its head, so that it was immediately dead. Then he took the cubs and knocked their heads together, and twisted their necks until they were dead. Then he took them up, the old one on one side, the cubs on the other, and carried them home. He brought the three bears to the assembled people, who proceeded to cut them up, put them in pots, cook them, and eat them.

Qauaxsaqssuq was immensely strong, and what was heavy for others was very light for him. In spite of his small size, he could easily lift the largest rocks. He had enemies, who however were afraid to do anything against him openly. So once, when he went away to Qavanganiq, where he had a kayak, they secretly cut a hole in the skin-covering of his kayak. When Qauaxsaqssuq got into his boat, and out into the water, the boat began to fill with water, and thus it was that Qauaxsaqssuq drowned.

Igimassuxssuq

Igimassuxssuq, a giant man from Cape Parry, was notorious for killing and eating people. Fearing him, his wife fled to Saunders Island, but he pursued her. Despite his size, he squeezed into a house where villagers confronted him. Denying his deeds, he was bound by his wife, who, urged by the villagers, killed him with a knife, ending his reign of terror.

Source:
Tales of the Smith Sound Eskimo
by Alfred L. Kroeber
[The American Folklore Society]
Journal of American Folklore
Vol.12, No.46, pp.166-182
July-September, 1899

► Themes of the story

Supernatural Beings: Igimassuxssuq is depicted as a giant, a being of extraordinary size and strength, which sets him apart from ordinary humans and aligns with the theme of encounters with supernatural entities.

Conflict with Nature: The narrative unfolds in the harsh Arctic environment, where survival is a constant challenge. Igimassuxssuq’s journey over the ice to pursue his wife highlights the struggle against natural elements inherent in Inuit life.

Revenge and Justice: The villagers, along with Igimassuxssuq’s wife, take decisive action to end his reign of terror. Their collective effort to bind and kill him serves as a form of communal justice, restoring peace to their society.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Labrador and Greenland story

Igimassuxssuq, or Igimarassuxssuq, was a very large man, who lived at Oangaxssut (Cape Parry), and killed and ate people. His wife became afraid, and weeping ran away to Akpan (Saunders Island). He followed her, going over the ice, until he also reached the house. “Let me come into the house,” he said. The door of the house was small, and Igimassuxssuq was a large man, but at last he managed to squeeze into the house. When the people asked him where those were whom he had eaten, he said, “Some one else has eaten them.” Then his wife tied his hands with thongs, and the people said: “Let his wife stab him with a knife.” Then his wife stabbed and killed him.

It is also said that another man later strangled her, and slashed her open in front.

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