Tag: 17. Cultural Heroes

Foundational figures who shape societies

The girl who fled to the inlanders

The details of this legend are somewhat defective, owing to the imperfect state of the manuscripts from which it was compiled. The tradition itself is widely spread over Greenland, but does not appear to be known any more perfectly by the relators themselves, and is perhaps gradually passing into oblivion. It is probably one of the oldest, and certainly one of the most remarkable, as pointing out the relations between the Eskimo and the Indians, and gives us several hints with regard to the customs of the latter, such as their dancing and their modes of disguising themselves.

Source: 
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo 
by Henry Rink 
[William Blackwood and Sons] 
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Conflict with Authority: The young maiden faces harsh punishment from her elder sister for breaking a precious needle, leading to her exile.

Supernatural Beings: The maiden encounters and marries an “inlander,” a term referring to a mythical or supernatural being in the context of the tale.

Cultural Heroes: The story provides insights into the customs and interactions between the Eskimo and the inlanders, highlighting foundational figures and societal norms.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

There was once a young maiden who happened to break her elder sister’s needle, which was made of reindeer-horn and was very precious. The sister got dreadfully angry with her, although she lived in great prosperity, being well married. So angry was she, that she told her sister she might as well take herself off, and henceforth keep away from the coast-people. The girl at once obeyed, and wandered about the country for many a day. One night when she was sitting down on a stone crying, she heard a voice beside her saying, “Why dost thou cry thus?” and turning round, she saw a very tall man, whom she recognised to be an inlander (viz., fabulous people), standing beside her.

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Again he repeated, “For what art thou crying?” “Because I broke my sister’s needle, and she sent me away.” “And I was sent away in the same manner because I spoiled my brother’s precious snare.” Then he asked her to follow him, and they went away together to his house, where he made her a present of deer-skins, some for outer garments and some for inner clothes, and he took her for his wife. This inlander used to go and catch eider-ducks in a certain lake, by wading out in the water and taking the birds by stealth. One day he proposed that she should accompany him on a visit to his relatives, and told her that when they came in sight of the house he would call out, “Kung, kung-kuyo! and they will know me at once,” he said. They went; and as soon as from one of the hill-tops they could make out the house of his relatives in the valley, he made the sign, and they heard the children of the place calling out, “Somebody is saying, ‘Kung, kung;’” and they saw his mother appearing in the doorway repeating the same words. They now descended, and entered the house. He had a sister who was an idiot (considered as a clairvoyant), and very talkative. He told her not to mention that a coast-woman had come among them, and he went to hide his wife in some remote corner of the broad ledge; but when his brothers came in they at once remarked, “There is a smell of coast-people about the place!” and when the fool went outside, she could not forbear saying to his neighbours, “Ye haven’t got a sister-in-law like mine, with beads and necklace — a real nice one — one of the coast-women!” After this the inquisitive people thronged about the window to get a peep at the stranger. Some crept up on the roof and made themselves a peep-hole there, and in no time the house was quite full. Subsequently there was some talk of a boat that was shortly expected, and one morning it was announced to be coming. She knew them to be inuarutligaks [fabulous dwarf inlanders or mountain-elves]. On coming up from the beach, they stopped outside the house and commenced singing to one another, and then brought forth gifts of skins, and stayed with them a whole month, enjoying each other’s company very much, feasting a great deal, and singing songs continually. At one of their banquets an inlander stood forth, and, by way of entertaining the assembly, he sang and danced. During the dance he transformed himself into a reindeer; but at this trick the children of the inuarutligaks got dreadfully frightened, so that he again quickly changed himself into a man. Another, in his turn to divert the company, took upon himself the shape of a hare; but the inlanders’ children cried out aloud, and he hastened to re-change himself as fast as possible. One inlander, when he danced, pulled the skin from off his whole body till it only adhered to a small portion between his eyes; but when the urchins cried, he soon put it all right again. At last one of the inuarutligaks came forth to dance, and he danced in such a way that the whole house soon leaned over, and all the inmates rolled down to one side with such force that one woman and a child were crushed to death. The entertainment now ended, and the next day the inuarutligaks departed, after having first invited their late hosts to visit them. In a month’s time they made preparations to start, and they had a boat made of stone for the purpose. They agreed that the coast-woman might as well be of the party, but told her not to open her eyes during the voyage, saying that the boat would not move on if she did so. She complied; but as soon as the crew could make out the sound of children’s voices, they permitted her to open them again, and she perceived a very little house, and wondered how they should all get room in it. While, however, she was looking at it, it seemed to grow bigger — the inuarutligaks knew how to enlarge their houses by means of rubbing them. They now went inside, bringing their bundles of skin, one for each person, with them, and then commenced their feasting and merry-making. One of the inuarutligaks stepped forward, and after having performed a dance, flung himself down on the ground transformed into an orsughiak-stone (viz., a sort of white, glistering felspar). The inlanders tried to lift it, but being quite unable, he soon rose up in his proper shape. One of the inlanders now advanced, fell to the ground, and was transformed into a common stone; but the inuarutligaks managed to lift it, and flung it against the door, where it flew to pieces. In this manner the inlanders lost one of their people, and they left on the following day. In the summer-time preparations were made for reindeer-hunting, and the coast-woman was to accompany them. She had two girls for her enemies because she married so early, and they were always molesting her, and trying to make her ridiculous. They said that she was not so smart and lightfooted on the march as the inlanders; and one of them added, “Today I even pursued and overtook a young deer!” On hearing this, the old woman of the house produced a pair of boots, which she filled with all kinds of vermin, and ordering her to put them on, she tightened them round her legs, the husband encouraging her, saying, “She must needs bear it in order to get agile and smart.” But presently she fell into a swoon, and the skin dropped off her feet and legs. When she was restored to her senses, she perceived new flesh and new skin to be growing on them, and she had now become swift and nimble as the inlanders themselves. On their return from the reindeer-hunt she said she longed for her relatives, and was desirous to go and see them; and the next summer her husband accompanied her thither. Approaching the coast-side, they saw a kayaker, whom they hailed, and asked to bring a boat to take them the remainder of the way. On getting into it the inlander was dreadfully afraid, and fell down flat on his face at the bottom of the boat, where he remained till he landed close to their home. They stayed that winter at her parents, and once her father said, “I wish I could have got another son-in-law instead of this one — one who knew how to trap eider-ducks.” The inlander had a habit of stopping in the house all day, but at these words he only asked a trap of him; and one day he returned all covered with ducks. The other men of the place in the winter-time often used to ridicule him, and always wanted to persuade him to accompany them out on the ice for the mowpok-hunt (correct spelling maupok, seal-hunt, by watching the breathing-holes). In the summer he resolved to visit his countrymen, and on parting said to his wife, “If I find our son in health, I will return with more companions.” He now set off, and did not return till next spring, and then reported that their son had died. He told his wife that it was now his intention to return to his own people; and when he left they never saw any more of him.

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A Creation Myth

This tale explains the origins of domestic animals and human fortune. The Mam offers a man herds of animals, but due to his poor choices—using weak lianas and failing to secure them—they escape. The Mam teaches him to pray instead. Another man, who ties animals properly, ensures their domestication. Descendants of the first man remain without herds, while those of the second enjoy wealth and animals.

Source
Ethnology of the Mayas of
Southern and Central British Honduras
by John Eric Thompson
Field Museum of Natural History
Anthropological Series, Pub.274, Vol.17.2
Chicago, 1930

► Themes of the story

Creation: The myth explains how domestic animals came to be and the origins of human fortune.

Origin of Things: It provides an explanation for the existence of domestic animals and the differing fortunes among people.

Cultural Heroes: The two men in the story serve as foundational figures whose actions explain cultural practices and societal structures.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Maya people

After the sun and moon rose, there was a man on earth, and the Mam wanted to help him. He told him to sit on a bench, but the man sat on the floor. He told him to eat his food on a low bench, but the man took his food and ate it on the floor.

The Mam told him he would give him a tapir so that he could have a herd, and told him to get a rope to tie it. The man, instead of getting a rope, got some tietie (liana), and tied the tapir with that. Needless to say the tapir broke the thin tietie and escaped. Then the Mam said, “I am going to give you peccaries so that you may have a herd of them. Get some rope and tie their feet.”

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The man again tied them with the thin tietie, and they escaped. Then the Mam told him to get rope to tie the deer, but the man caught it by the tail, and the tail breaking, the deer escaped. That is why the deer now has no tail. Then the Mam said to the man, “Now I can’t help you any more as you have let all the animals escape, but I will teach you how to pray and burn copal to the Morning Star, and then you will always have plenty of game.”

Now there was another man who tied all these different animals well, and that is why there are domestic animals in the world. These were the first men, and all the Indians are descended from them. Some are descended from the first, and have no domestic animals in herds. Others are descended from the second, and they are rich and have herds of animals.

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Ali and Ou Ali

Ali and Ou Ali, two mischievous friends, engage in a series of cunning schemes and betrayals, often resulting in humorous consequences. From stealing and trickery to absurd retaliations, their adventures illustrate their mutual mischief and competitive camaraderie. Despite constant deception, they ultimately divide a treasure, symbolizing the strange bond they share, where friendship and rivalry coexist in a comically chaotic balance.

Source
Moorish Literature
   romantic ballads, tales of the Berbers,
   stories of the Kabyles, folk-lore,
   and national traditions
The Colonial Press,
   London, New York, 1901

► Themes of the story

Cunning and Deception: The story revolves around their clever schemes and mutual betrayals.

Conflict with Authority: The protagonists occasionally challenge societal norms or figures of power.

Cultural Heroes: The characters represent a folkloric depiction of cleverness valued in Berber culture.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about the Berber peoples

Translated by J. Rivière
and Chauncey C. Starkweather

Ali and Ou Ali were two friends. One day they met at the market. One of them bore ashes and the other carried dust. The first one had covered his goods with a little flour. The other had concealed his merchandise under some black figs. “Come, I will sell you some flour,” said Ali.

“Come, I will sell you some black figs,” answered Ou Ali.

Each regained his own horse. Ali, who thought he was carrying flour, found, on opening his sack, that it was only ashes. Ou Ali, who thought he was bearing black figs, found on opening his sack that it was nothing but dust. Another day they again greeted each other in the market. Ali smiled.

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Ou Ali smiled, and said to his friend:

“For the love of God, what is your name?”

“Ali; and yours?”

“Ou Ali.”

Another time they were walking together, and said to each other:

“Let us go and steal.”

One of them stole a mule and the other stole a rug. They passed the night in the forest. Now, as the snow was falling, Ali said to Ou Ali:

“Give me a little of your rug to cover me.”

Ou Ali refused. “You remember,” he added, “that I asked you to put my rug on your mule, and you would not do it.” An instant afterward Ali cut off a piece of the rug, for he was dying of cold. Ou Ali got up and cut the lips of the mule. The next morning, when they awaked, Ou Ali said to Ali:

“O my dear friend, your mule is grinning.”

“O my dear friend,” replied Ali, “the rats have gnawed your rug.”

And they separated. Some time afterward they met anew. Ali said to Ou Ali:

“Let us go and steal.”

They saw a peasant, who was working. One of them went to the brook to wash his cloak there, and found it dry. He laid the blade of his sabre so that it would reflect the rays of the sun, and began to beat his cloak with his hands as if to wash it. The laborer came to the brook also, and found the man who was washing his cloak without water.

“May God exterminate you,” said he, “who wash without water.”

“May God exterminate you,” answered the washer, “who work without a single ox.”

The other robber watched the laborer, and had already stolen one of his oxen. The laborer went back to his plough, and said to the washer, “Keep this ox for me while I go and hunt for the other.” As soon as he was out of sight the robber took away the ox left in his charge. The laborer returned, and seizing the goad by one end he gave a great blow on the plough-handle, crying:

“Break, now. It matters little.”

The robbers met in a wood and killed the oxen. As they lacked salt, they went to purchase it. They salted the meat, roasted it, and ate it. Ali discovered a spring. Ou Ali not being able to find water, was dying of thirst.

“Show me your spring,” he said to Ali, “and I will drink.”

“Eat some salt, my dear friend,” answered Ali. What could he do? Some days afterward Ou Ali put ashes on the shoes of Ali. The next day he followed the traces of the ashes, found the spring, and discovered thus the water that his friend was drinking. He took the skin of one of the oxen and carried it to the fountain. He planted two sticks above the water, hung the skin on the sticks, and placed the horns of the ox opposite the road. During the night his friend went to the spring. At the sight of the skin thus stretched out, fear seized him, and he fled.

“I am thirsty,” said Ou Ali.

“Eat some salt, my dear friend,” answered Ali, “for salt removes thirst.”

Ali retired, and, after having eaten, ran to examine the skin that he had stretched out. Ou Ali ate the salt, and was dying of thirst.

“For the love of God,” he said finally, “show me where you drink.”

Ali was avenged. “Come, Jew-face, and I will show you the water.” He made him drink at the spring, and said to him: “See what you were afraid of.” The meat being finished, they started away. Ou Ali went to the house of Ali, and said to him:

“Come, we will marry you to the daughter of an old woman.”

Now, the old woman had a herd of oxen. She said to Ali: “Take this drove to the fields and mount one of the animals.” Ali mounted one of the oxen. He fell to the ground; the oxen began to run and trample on him. Ou Ali, who was at the house, said to the old woman:

“O my old woman, give me your daughter in marriage.”

She called her daughter. “Take a club,” she said to her, “and we will give it to him until he cries for mercy.”

The daughter brought a club and gave Ou Ali a good beating. Ali, who was watching the herd, came at nightfall and met his friend.

“Did the old woman accept you?” he asked him.

“She accepted me,” answered Ali. “And is the herd easy to watch?”

“From morning till night I have nothing to do but to repose. Take my place to-morrow, and mount one of the oxen.”

The next day Ou Ali said to the old woman, “To-day I will take care of the herd.” And, on starting, he recommended Ali to ask the old woman for her daughter’s hand.

“It is well,” answered Ali. Ou Ali arrived in the fields; one of the oxen seized him with his horns and tossed him into the air. All the others did the same thing. He regained the horse half dead. Ali, who had remained at the house, asked the old woman for her daughter’s hand. “You ask me again?” said she. She took a club and gave it to him till he had had enough. Ou Ali said to Ali: “You have played me a trick.” Ali answered him: “Without doubt they gave me the stick so hard that I did not hear the last blow.”

“It is well, my dear friend. Ali owes nothing to Ou Ali.”

They went away. The old woman possessed a treasure. Ou Ali therefore said to Ali: “I will put you in a basket, for you know that we saw that treasure in a hole.” They returned to the old woman’s house. Ali goes down into the hole, takes the treasure, and puts it into the basket. Ou Ali draws up the basket, takes it, abandons his friend, now a prisoner, and runs to hide the treasure in the forest. Ali was in trouble, for he knew not how to get out. What could he do? He climbed up the sides of the hole. When he found himself in the house, he opened the door and fled. Arriving at the edge of the forest he began to bleat. Ou Ali, thinking it was a ewe, ran up. It was his friend.

“O my dear,” cried Ali, “I have found you at last.”

“God be praised. Now, let us carry our treasure.”

They started on the way. Ou Ali, who had a sister, said to Ali: “Let us go to my sister’s house.” They arrived at nightfall. She received them with joy. Her brother said to her:

“Prepare some pancakes and some eggs for us.”

She prepared the pancakes and the eggs and served them with the food.

“O my sister,” cried Ou Ali, “my friend does not like eggs; bring us some water.” She went to get the water. As soon as she had gone, Ali took an egg and put it into his mouth. When the woman returned, he made such efforts to give it up that he was all out of breath. The repast was finished, and Ali had not eaten anything. Ou Ali said to his sister: “O my sister, my friend is ill; bring me a skewer.” She brought him a skewer, which he put into the fire. When the skewer was red with the heat, Ou Ali seized it and applied it to the cheek of Ali. The latter uttered a cry, and rejected the egg. “Truly,” said the woman, “you do not like eggs.”

The two friends started and arrived at a village.

“Let us go to my sister’s house,” said Ali to his friend. She received them with open arms.

Ali said to her: “O my sister, prepare a good stew for us.”

They placed themselves at the table at nightfall, and she served them with food.

“O my sister,” cried Ali, “my friend does not like stew.”

Ali ate alone. When he was satisfied, the two friends started, without forgetting the treasure. On the way Ali said to Ou Ali: “Give it to me to-day and I will deposit it in my house.” He took it and gave it to his wife. “Bury me,” he said to her. “And if Ou Ali comes tell him that his old friend is dead, and receive him with tears.” Ou Ali arrived, and asked the woman in tears to see the tomb of his dead friend. He took an ox-horn and began to dig in the earth that covered the body.

“Behind! behind!” cried the pretended dead man.

“Get up, there, you liar,” answered Ali.

They went away together. “Give me the treasure,” asked Ou Ali; “to-day I will take it to my house.” He took it to his house, and said to his wife: “Take this treasure. I am going to stretch myself out as if I were dead. When Ali comes receive him weeping, and say to him: ‘Your friend is dead. He is stretched out in the bedroom.'”

Ali went and said to the woman: “Get me some boiling water, for your husband told me to wash him when he should die.” When the water was ready the woman brought it. Ali seized the kettle and poured it on the stomach of Ou Ali, who sprang up with a bound. Thus he got even for the trick of his friend. The two friends divided the treasure then, and Ali went home.

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The Story of Sidi Brahim of Massat

This detailed narrative explores various aspects of life and events in Sous, Morocco, during a historical period. It covers personal stories, regional commerce, societal customs, and conflicts involving local tribes, the Sultan’s forces, and foreign traders. Topics include religious education, tribute systems, trade routes, military skirmishes, and weapon manufacturing. The text highlights interactions between Muslims, Jews, and Christians and reveals the region’s vibrant culture and contentious politics.

Source
Moorish Literature
   romantic ballads, tales of the Berbers,
   stories of the Kabyles, folk-lore,
   and national traditions
The Colonial Press,
   London, New York, 1901

► Themes of the story

Conflict with Authority: The people of Massat resist the Sultan’s increased tribute demands, leading to tensions with the ruling powers.

Cultural Heroes: Sidi Brahim emerges as a significant figure within his community, embodying the values and traditions of the Berber people.

Community and Isolation: The narrative delves into the dynamics of the Massat community, highlighting their unity in the face of external pressures.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about the Berber peoples

Translated by Réne Basset
and Chauncey C. Starkweather

The Taleb Sidi Brahim, son of Amhammed of Massat, in the province of Sous, tells the following story about himself: When he was still a child at his father’s house he went to the mosque to read with a taleb. He studied with him for twelve and a half years. His father gave him bread and kouskous, and he ate eight deniers’ worth a day. I will make known the country of Massat. It contains seventeen towns. In the middle of these is a market. The Jews have a refuge in the village of the chief named Mobarek-ben-Mahomet. He lives with a sheik called Brahim-Mahomet-Abon-Djemaa. These two chiefs levy a tax on the Jews. They receive from them four ounces per family at the beginning of each month. If the festival of the Mussulmans coincides with the Sabbath of the Jews, the latter pay to each of the chiefs one ounce for a Jew or a Jewess, boy or girl, little or big.

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The following are the details of the population of Massat. It includes 1,700 men. As to the women, little boys or girls, only the Lord knows their number. There are 1,250 houses. The horses amount to 180. They ride them and make them work like oxen and mules. They also fight on horseback. The country has trees, vines, figs, cacti, dates, oranges, lemons, apples, apricots, melons, and olives. There is a river which flows from there to the sea. The commerce is considerable. There are Jews and Mussulmans. The number of books in the mosque is unknown, unless it be by God. The teachers are numerous as well as the pilgrims, the descendants of Mahomet, and the saints. May God aid us with his blessing!

We will now speak of the tribute which the people of Massat pay yearly to Prince Mouley-Abd-Er-Rahman. Up to our days they had, for fifty-one years, given him 5,000 livres of silver. The prince said to them, “You must pay 1,000 livres more.” They answered, “By the Lord, we will only give you as before, 5,000 livres, a slave, a servant, and a horse.” The kaid Abd-el-Cadik, who was caliph of the King of Taroundant, hastened to send against them forty-five horsemen, and said to them: “You must give me six thousand livres of silver, and a slave, a servant, and a horse in addition.” They refused and drove away the cavalry, saying, “Return to the kaid who sent you against us, and say to him that we will not increase our tribute as he demands.” The horsemen returned and arrived at Taroundant. The kaid asked him, “Tell me what happened to you with the people of Massat.” They answered him, “They read in their assembly the letter that you sent them, and told us to go back, and that they would pay no larger sum.” The kaid called a council and asked what had better be done with the people of Massat. The sheiks of the Achtouks answered, “Make complaints to the Sultan at Morocco.” He wrote to the Sultan, asking him to send an army to destroy the rebels of Massat. The Sultan sent a force of 3,500 horsemen, to whom he gave for chief, Ettaib Eddin, who rejoined them near the khalifah of the King at Taroundant. When the royal troops arrived, the fourth night, he started and led them to the taleb Mahomet of the Aggars, in the midst of the country of the Achtouks. The taleb said to him: “Return to Taroundant. Let your lieutenant go with them and we will talk about it.” The kaid answered, “Very well.” The chiefs of the Achtouks mounted their horses and led the army toward the country of Hama, in the mountain which is between the Achtouks and Ida-Oultit. The troops hastened toward the foot of the mountain, near the river Alras, in the country of Takourt. The mountaineers marched against them and fought for three days until the holy men and the sherifs arrived and quieted them. The mountaineers came down toward the army. The kaid betrayed them. He seized fourteen of their leaders and sent them to the kaid at Taroundant. He cut off their heads and hung them up at the gate. As to the army that was above the river Alras, it attacked the people of Massat on account of the tribute demanded by the kaid. It made the onset with cavalry, and destroyed the country. The natives received them with powder, and they fought half a day. The natives gained the advantage in the fight. The enemy abandoned their cannons. The natives slew them until the Sultan’s troops retreated. They captured 700 horses. The troops of the Sultan abandoned their baggage except six chests of silver. Many guns were broken on that day, until the flying invaders reached, the country of the Achtouks. The people of Massat had for allies the tribes of Aglou and Tizpit, who equalled them in number. As for the cannons abandoned the day of the battle, the conquerors took two of them to their country. They kept them until they were repaid the 6,500 livres of silver, which had been taken from them. Then they gave back the cannons. Such is the complete story of that which happened between the tribe of Massat, the Khalifah of the King, and the neighboring tribes.

II

Information about the country of Tazroualt. The Taleb Sidi Brahim, son of Mahomet, of Massat in Sous, tells the following: He started for the zaouiah of Tazroualt, to study there during seven months with the taleb Sidi Mahomet Adjeli, one of the greatest lights. The number of students was seventy-four. Forty-two of these studied the law. The others read the Koran. None of the students paid for his living. It was furnished by the chief of the country, Hecham. He gave to the zaouiah mentioned, six servants and six slaves to cook the food of the students. The number of the villages of this country is nine. The Kashlah of Hecham is situated in the middle of the country. The Jewish quarter is at the left. The market is held every day at the entrance to the fort. This latter is built of stone, lime, and pine planks and beams. Riches abound. Caravans go from there to Timbuctoo, the Soudan, Sahara, and Agadir-Ndouma. They go to these countries to buy ivory, ostrich feathers, slaves, gold and silver. If it hurries, a caravan consumes a whole year in visiting these places. The people of the different countries buy from them and give in exchange other merchandise, such as linen, cotton, silks, iron, steel, incense, corals, cloves, spikenard, haberdashery, pottery, glass, and everything that comes, as they say, from the country of Christians. When these goods enumerated above have arrived, the merchants, both Jews and Mussulmans, come forward and buy them according to the needs of their business. I will add here, with more details, some words about Hecham. He has twelve sons, all horsemen, who have thirty-six horses. As for oxen, sheep, and camels, God alone could tell the figure. The number of the wives that Hecham has married is four white and six slaves–the latter black. His only son has as many white wives as his father, but more black ones. The men of Tizeroualt are of the number of 1,400. But for the women, boys, and girls, God alone knows the figure. They possess 200 horses, beside those of Hecham. There are 750 houses; the number of books in the mosque is 130–in the Chelha language.

III

The sheik Sidi Hammad, son of Mahomet Mouley Ben-Nacer, has written his book in Amazir. It is entitled the “Kitab-amazir.” This work treats of obligations and traditions of things permitted and forbidden.

IV

There are 3,500 men in the Aglou country. They have 2,200 houses and 960 horses. This district is on the sea-coast and possesses a stone-harbor. There are barks which are used in fishing. The inhabitants were living in tranquillity when one day, as they were starting out to fish, a ship arrived off shore. They fled in fear and left it in the sea. The ship waited till midnight. Then it entered the port and ran up a red flag. It remained at anchor for fifteen days. The people of Aglou assembled day and night, big and little, even the horsemen before it. No one was missing. The chiefs of the town wrote letters which they sent to all the villages. They sent one to Sidi Hecham couched in these words: “Come at once. The Christians have made an expedition against us, and have taken this port.” Sidi Hecham sent messengers to all the provinces over which he ruled and said in his letters: “You must accompany me to the country of Aglou, for the Christians have made an expedition against us.” All the neighboring tribes assembled to march against the Christians. When Sidi Hecham had joined them he said, “You must raise a red flag like theirs.”

They raised it. When it was seen by those on the ship, a sailor came ashore in a small boat and approached the Mussulmans there assembled.

“Let no one insult the Christian,” said Sidi Hecham, “until we learn his purpose in landing here.”

They asked him, “What do you want?”

The Christian replied, “We wish to receive, in the name of God, pledges of security.”

All who were present said, “God grants to you security with us.”

The Christian then continued, “My object is to trade with you.”

“That is quite agreeable to us,” answered Hecham. Then Hecham asked the Christian what he wanted to purchase.”

“Oil, butter, wheat, oxen, sheep, and chickens,” said he.

When the Mussulmans heard this they gathered together wheat, oil, oxen, and everything he had mentioned. He made his purchases, and was well supplied. The master of the ship then said:

“Our business is finished. We must go back home. But we shall return to you.” Hecham answered:

“That which I have done for you is not pleasing to the people of Aglou. It is only on account of the pledge of security that I have been able to restrain them. I have given you all you asked. Next time you come, bring us fifty cannons and ten howitzers.”

“Very well,” answered the Christian, “I shall return this time next year.”

“Do as you promise,” replied Hecham, “and I will give you whatever you want in the country of the Mussulmans.”

V
A Story about the Country of Ait-Bamouran

There arrived in this country at the beginning of the year another ship which stopped at a place called Ifni, in the tribe of Ait-Bamouran, and stayed there three days. Then one of the sailors got into a small boat, came ashore, and said to the inhabitants, “I will buy bread, meat, and water from you.”

The Mussulmans brought him bread, figs, and water, saying: “You must send two of your men ashore while we go on board the ship with you.”

“It is well,” replied the Christian. Then he went to get two of his men whom he brought ashore and said to the Mussulmans: “You must give me one of your men.”

They gave him a hostage to remain on board the Christian ship. Then they filled a boat, and boarded the ship themselves to deliver what they had sold. They ran all over the ship looking at everything. Then they said, “Come with us to the spring and we will draw water.” The Christians accompanied them to the fountain to fill their water-casks. The other natives, to the number of fifteen, got into a boat and went to the ship. With the water-party and the hostages ashore there were only four Christians on the ship when the Mussulmans boarded it.

“Don’t come aboard till our men have come back,” said the Christians.

“We will come aboard by force,” he was answered, and the attack began. One of the Christians killed a native with a gun. Then they fought until the Christians were overcome. Two Christians were killed and the rest captured and taken ashore and imprisoned with the others of the water-party. The ship was sold for 180 mithkals. The Christians were all sold and dispersed among the tribes. The news of this spread to Taccourt. The merchants there sent to Ait-Bamouran and bought all the Christians at any price. They secured seven. Three were missing, of whom two were in the country of Ait-bou-Bekr with the chief of that tribe named Abd-Allah, son of Bou-Bekr. The third, who was a boy, was with the sheik of Aglou, who said:

“I will not sell this one, for he has become as dear to me as a son.” Then addressing the young boy he said, “I wish to convert you; be a Mussulman.” The boy acquiesced and embraced Islamism. The day of his abjuration the sheik killed in his honor an ox for a festival, and gave to the convert the name of Mahomet. Then he sent to say to all his tribe:

“Come to my house. I have prepared a repast.” The Mussulmans came and diverted themselves with their horses and gunpowder. The chief told them, “I have given a fourth of my possessions, a slave, and a servant to this young man.” He added, “He shall live with my son.” They both occupied the same room, and the master taught the young convert the whole Koran. The Mussulmans called him Sidi Mahomet, son of AH. Seven Christians were ransomed and sent back to their own country.

VI

Information about the country Tiznit: This place is a kind of a city surrounded on all sides by a wall, and having only two gates. The water is in the centre, in a fountain. The fortress is built above the fountain, in the middle of the city. It is entirely constructed of mortar, cut stone, marble, and beams, all from Christian countries. It was the residence of the khalifah of the King in the time of Mouley-Soliman. When this prince died, the people of Tiznit revolted, drove away the lieutenant, and made a concerted attack upon the citadel, which they completely destroyed. They took the stones and beams and built a mosque on the spot, near the fountain of which we have spoken. But when Mouley-Abd-Er-Rahman came to the throne he sent a caliph to Tiznit. He gave him 300 horsemen. When the caliph arrived near the town he waited three days and they gave him food and barley. At the end of this time he made a proclamation summoning all the people to him. When they came he read them the royal edict and said:

“I must enter your city to occupy the fortress of the King!” They said: “No; go back whence you came and say to your master: ‘You shall not rule over us. Your fortress is totally destroyed, and with the material we have built a big mosque in the middle of our city.'”

Prince Mouley-Abd-Er-Rahman sent at once against them his son Sidi-Mahomet with the khalifah and 6,000 horsemen. The people of Tiznit were informed of the approach of the army under the Sultan’s son, and that the advancing guard was near. The soldiers arrived in the middle of the country of the Achtouks and camped in the city of Tebouhonaikt near the river Alras. There was a day’s march between them and Tiznit. The inhabitants, frightened, sent deputies to the other districts, saying:

“Come and help us, for the Sultan’s son has come and ordered us to build him a fort in the space of one month or he will fall upon us, cut a passage, and destroy our city.” The tribes around Tiznit assembled and marched against the royal army. The Sultan’s son stayed twenty-two days at Tebouhonaikt, then he crossed the river Alras and marched against the rebels. He surrounded Tiznit on all sides. The inhabitants made a sortie, engaged in battle, and fought till the morning star. At the fall of day the battle recommenced. The royal army was defeated and driven across the river Alras. The son of the Sultan killed eight rebels and thirty-five horses, but many of his soldiers fell. He retreated to Morocco.

VII

Information about the country of Taragoust: This is a unique district situated near the source of the Ourd-Sous. It is distant from Taroundant about a day and a half’s march. When a young man becomes of age his father buys him a gun and a sabre. The market is in the middle of the country. But no man goes there without his weapons. The sheiks judge each one in the market for four months in the year in turn and during their period of office. They decided who was guilty and demanded price of blood for those killed in the market. One of them said:

“I will give nothing. Find the murderer. He will give you the price of blood.”

The sheik replied: “Pay attention. Give us part of your goods.”

“I will give you nothing,” he answered.

In this way they quarrelled, until they began fighting with guns. Each tried to steal the other’s horses and oxen in the night and kill the owner. They kept acting this way toward each other until Ben-Nacer came to examine the villages where so many crimes were committed, and he reestablished peace and order.

VIII

Concerning guns and sabres: They were all brought into the city of Adjadir in the government of Sidi Mahomet-ben-Abd-Alla. They introduced guns, poniards, sabres, English powder, and everything one can mention from the country of the Christians. Sidi Mahomet-ben-Abd-Allah sent there his khalifah, called Ettaleb Calih. He busied himself during his administration in amassing a great fortune. The guns imported into the provinces were called merchandise of the taleb Calih. This officer revolted against the Sultan, sent him no more money, and consulted him no longer in the administration of affairs. When the prince ordered him to do such and such a thing with the Christians, Mussulmans, or others, he replied:

“I shall do as I please, for all the people of Sous are under my hand. I leave the rest to you.” The Sultan sent much money to Sidi Mahomet-ben-Abd-Allah, and ordered him with troops against the rebel. The latter fought against the divan until he was captured and put in fetters and chains. The partisans of the Emperor said to him:

“We have captured your khalifah Ettaleb Calih and his accomplices.”

The prince responded: “Make him a bonnet of iron and a shirt of iron, and give him but a loaf of bread a day.” In a letter that he sent he said also:

“Collect all the goods you can find and let the Christian ships take them all to Taccourt, leaving nothing whatever.” Guns, sabres, powder, sulphur, linens, cottons, everything was transported.

During the reign of Sidi Mouley Soliman he built the city as it is at present. He increased it, and said to the Christians:

“You must bring me cannons, mortars, and powder, and I will give you in exchange wheat, oil, wool, and whatever you desire.”

The Christians answered: “Most willingly, we shall return with our products.” They brought him cannons, mortars, and powder. In return he supplied them with woollens, wheat, oil, and whatever they desired.

The Ulmas reproached him, saying: “You are not fulfilling the law in giving to the Christians wheat, oil, and woollens. You are weakening the Mussulmans.”

He answered them: “We must make sacrifices of these goods for two or three years, until the Christians have stocked us with cannons, powder, and so forth. These I will place in the coast towns to drive off the infidels when they arrive.”

IX

More words about guns: They only make them in three cities in the interior of Sous. The workmen are very numerous. They make also gun-barrels, pistols, gun-locks, and all such things. As for sabres and poniards, they are made by Arab armorers. They make powder in every province, but only in small quantities.

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The Election of the King Bird (the black-and-white Fishing Eagle)

King Essiya of Old Town, Calabar, once tasked birds with electing a leader through combat. Amid fierce competition, Ituen, the powerful fishing eagle, emerged victorious due to his strength and ferocity. Declared the king bird, he gained symbolic importance, with his feathers believed to bestow courage and luck. Traditions and superstitions surrounding the king bird endure, influencing warfare, trade, and cultural practices in the region.

Source
Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria
by Elphinstone Dayrell
Longmans, Green & Co.
London, New York, Bombay, Calcutta, 1910

► Themes of the story

Cultural Heroes: The black-and-white fishing eagle emerges as a central figure, embodying qualities that lead to its selection as the king bird, a position of cultural significance.

Conflict with Authority: The various bird species vie for dominance, challenging each other’s authority in the quest to become the king bird.

Mythical Creatures: The story features various bird species, with the black-and-white fishing eagle taking on a near-mythical status as the king bird.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Nigerian peoples

Old Town, Calabar, once had a king called Essiya, who, like most of the Calabar kings in the olden days, was rich and powerful; but although he was so wealthy, he did not possess many slaves. He therefore used to call upon the animals and birds to help his people with their work. In order to get the work done quickly and well, he decided to appoint head chiefs of all the different species.

The elephant he appointed king of the beasts of the forest, and the hippopotamus king of the water animals, until at last it came to the turn of the birds to have their king elected.

► Continue reading…

Essiya thought for some time which would be the best way to make a good choice, but could not make up his mind, as there were so many different birds who all considered they had claims. There was the hawk with his swift flight, and of hawks there were several species. There were the herons to be considered, and the big spur-winged geese, the hornbill or toucan tribe, and the game birds, such as guinea-fowl, the partridge, and the bustards. Then again, of course, there were all the big crane tribe, who walked about the sandbanks in the dry season, but who disappeared when the river rose, and the big black-and-white fishing eagles. When the king thought of the plover tribe, the sea-birds, including the pelicans, the doves, and the numerous shy birds who live in the forest, all of whom sent in claims, he got so confused, that he decided to have a trial by ordeal of combat, and sent word round the whole country for all the birds to meet the next day and fight it out between themselves, and that the winner should be known as the king bird ever afterwards.

The following morning many thousands of birds came, and there was much screeching and flapping of wings. The hawk tribe soon drove all the small birds away, and harassed the big waders so much, that they very shortly disappeared, followed by the geese, who made much noise, and winged away in a straight line, as if they were playing “Follow my leader.” The big forest birds who liked to lead a secluded life very soon got tired of all the noise and bustle, and after a few croaks and other weird noises went home. The game birds had no chance and hid in the bush, so that very soon the only birds left were the hawks and the big black-and-white fishing eagle, who was perched on a tree calmly watching everything. The scavenger hawks were too gorged and lazy to take much interest in the proceedings, and were quietly ignored by the fighting tribe, who were very busy circling and swooping on one another, with much whistling going on. Higher and higher they went, until they disappeared out of sight. Then a few would return to earth, some of them badly torn and with many feathers missing.

At last the fishing eagle said–

“When you have quite finished with this foolishness please tell me, and if any of you fancy yourselves at all, come to me, and I will settle your chances of being elected head chief once and for all;” but when they saw his terrible beak and cruel claws, knowing his great strength and ferocity, they stopped fighting between themselves, and acknowledged the fishing eagle to be their master.

Essiya then declared that Ituen, which was the name of the fishing eagle, was the head chief of all the birds, and should thenceforward be known as the king bird.

[As the king bird is always very difficult to shoot with a bow and arrow, owing to his sharp and keen sight, the young men, when they want his feathers, set traps for him baited with rats, which catch him by the foot in a noose when he seizes them. Except when they are nesting the king birds roost on very high trees, sometimes as many as twenty or thirty on neighbouring trees. They fly many miles from where they get their food, and arrive at their roosting-place just before the sun sets, leaving the next morning at dawn for their favourite haunts. They are very regular in their habits, and you can see them every night at the same time coming from the same direction and flying over the same trees, generally fairly high up in the air. There is a strong belief amongst many natives on the Cross River that the king bird has the power of influencing the luck or the reverse of a canoe. For example, when a trader, having bought a new canoe, is going to market and a king bird crosses the river from right to left, then if he is unlucky at the market that day, whenever the king bird again crosses that particular canoe from right to left he will be unlucky, and the bad luck will stick to the canoe. If, on the other hand, the bird for the first time crosses from left to right, and he is fortunate in his dealings that day at the market, then he will always be lucky in that canoe the day he sees a king bird flying across the river from the left to the right-hand side.]

From that time to the present day, whenever the young men of the country go to fight they always wear three of the long black-and-white feathers of the king bird in their hair, one on each side and one in the middle, as they are believed to impart much courage and skill to the wearer; and if a young man is not possessed of any of these feathers when he goes out to fight, he is looked upon as a very small boy indeed.

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The Lucky Fisherman

Akon Obo, a once-poor man, became wealthy through skillful fishing with bamboo traps, eventually rising to become a chief in his community. His success supported his family and elevated his status. After his tragic death in a storm, his sons honored him with elaborate funeral rites, spending lavishly on traditional ceremonies. This earned Akon Obo the title “lucky fisherman,” reflecting his remarkable journey from poverty to prominence.

Source
Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria
by Elphinstone Dayrell
Longmans, Green & Co.
London, New York, Bombay, Calcutta, 1910

► Themes of the story

Cultural Heroes: Akon Obo becomes a foundational figure in his community through his success and leadership.

Family Dynamics: The relationship between Akon Obo and his sons, especially how they honor him after his death.

Ritual and Initiation: The elaborate funeral rites and ceremonies performed by his sons.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Nigerian peoples

In the olden days there were no hooks or casting nets, so that when the natives wanted to catch fish they made baskets and set traps at the river side.

One man named Akon Obo, who was very poor, began to make baskets and traps out of bamboo palm, and then when the river went down he used to take his traps to a pool and set them baited with palm-nuts. In the night the big fish used to smell the palm-nuts and go into the trap, when at once the door would fall down, and in the morning Akon Obo would go and take the fish out.

► Continue reading…

He was very successful in his fishing, and used to sell the fish in the market for plenty of money. When he could afford to pay the dowry he married a woman named Eyong, a native of Okuni, and had three children by her, but he still continued his fishing. The eldest son was called Odey, the second Yambi, and the third Atuk. These three boys, when they grew up, helped their father with his fishing, and he gradually became wealthy and bought plenty of slaves. At last he joined the Egbo society, and became one of the chiefs of the town. Even after he became a chief, he and his sons still continued to fish.

One day, when he was crossing the river in a small dug-out canoe, a tornado came on very suddenly, and the canoe capsized, drowning the chief. When his sons heard of the death of their father, they wanted to go and drown themselves also, but they were persuaded not to by the people. After searching for two days, they found the dead body some distance down the river, and brought it back to the town. They then called their company together to play, dance, and sing for twelve days, in accordance with their native custom, and much palm wine was drunk.

When the play was finished, they took their father’s body to a hollowed-out cavern, and placed two live slaves with it, one holding a native lamp of palm-oil, and the other holding a matchet. They were both tied up, so that they could not escape, and were left there to keep watch over the dead chief, until they died of starvation.

When the cave was covered in, the sons called the chiefs together, and they played Egbo for seven days, which used up a lot of their late father’s money. When the play was over, the chiefs were surprised at the amount of money which the sons had been able to spend on the funeral of their father, as they knew how poor he had been as a young man. They therefore called him the lucky fisherman.

[The Egbo society would meet together and would be provided with palm wine and food, as much as they could eat and drink, which frequently cost a lot of money. Dancing and singing would also be kept up and a band would play, consisting of drums made of hollowed-out trunks of trees, beaten with two pieces of soft wood, native made bells and rattles made of basket work, with stones inside, the bottom consisting of hard dried skin, and covered all over with long streamers of fibre. Other drums are also played by hand; these are made out of hollow wood, covered at one end with dried skin, the other end being left open. The drummer usually sits on two of these drums, which have a different note, one being a deep sound, and the other slightly higher.]

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The Story of Bostanai

In ancient Persia, the tyrannical King Hormuz sought to eliminate the descendants of King David among the Jews. Following a chilling dream symbolizing his cruelty, Hormuz spared a lone survivor, an infant named Bostanai. Raised as a prince, Bostanai proved his royal lineage through his fortitude and wisdom. Ultimately, he became a beloved leader, ensuring peace and prosperity for Persia’s Jewish community.

Source
Jewish Fairy Tales and Legends
by Gertrude Landa (“Aunt Naomi”)
Bloch Publishing Co., New York, 1919

► Themes of the story

Prophecy and Fate: The survival and rise of Bostanai align with the prophecy concerning the House of David.

Good vs. Evil: The narrative contrasts the tyrannical King Hormuz with the virtuous Bostanai.

Cultural Heroes: Bostanai emerges as a hero who ensures peace and prosperity for Persia’s Jewish community.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Jewish mythology

In the days of long ago, when Persia was a famous and beautiful land, with innumerable rose gardens that perfumed the whole country and gorgeous palaces, there lived a king, named Hormuz. He was a cruel monarch, this Shah of Persia. He tyrannized over his people and never allowed them to live in peace. Above all, he hated the Jews. “These descendants of Abraham,” he said to his grand vizier, “never know when they are beaten. How many times it has been reported to me that they have been wiped out of existence, or driven from the land, I know not. Yet nothing, it seems, can crush their spirit. Tell me, why is this?”

► Continue reading…

“It is because they have a firm faith in their future,” answered the vizier.

“What mean you by those words?” demanded the king, angrily.

“I speak only of what I have heard from their wise men,” the vizier replied, hastily. “They hold the belief that they will be restored as a united people to their own land.”

“Under their own king?” interrupted Hormuz.

“Under a descendant of the royal House of David,” the vizier answered, solemnly.

The king stamped his foot with rage.

“How dare they think of any other Shah but me,” he exclaimed, for his one idea of ruling over people was that he had every right to be cruel to them. Then he said suddenly, “Think you that if there were no more people who could trace their ancestry to this–this David, their faith would be shattered?”

“Peradventure, it may be so.”

“It shall be so,” cried the king. “There shall be no remnants of this House of David.”

He summoned his executioners, and when they were lined up before him, he surveyed the evil-looking band with a cunning gleam in his eye.

“Unto you,” he said, in a rasping voice, “I hand over all the descendants of the House of David to be found among the Jews in the whole of the realm of Persia. Slay them instantly. See to it that not a single one–man, woman, or child–is left alive. Woe betide you, and you my counselors”–this with a meaning glance at the grand vizier–“if my commands are not carried out to the letter. To your duties. Ye are dismissed from the presence.”

Waving them away, he indulged his fancy in thoughts of the coming executions, chuckling the while.

From day to day he received reports that his commands were being carried out. The land was filled with weeping, for the cruel butchery was worse than war. None could defend themselves. Mere suspicion was enough for the executioners. They wasted no time with doubts, but slew all who were said to belong to the House of David. The Shah looked over the list each night and chuckled. At last he was informed that all had been slaughtered.

“‘Tis well, ’tis well,” he said, rubbing his hands, gleefully, “I shall sleep in peace tonight.”

He slept in a bower in a rose garden, and nowhere in the world are the roses so magnificent and so sweet-scented as in Persia.

“I shall have pleasant dreams,” he muttered, but instead he had a nightmare that frightened him terribly.

He dreamed that he was walking in his rose garden, but instead of deriving pleasure from the beautiful trees, he was only angered.

“Are there no white, or yellow, or pink roses?” he asked, but received no answer. “All red, deep, deep red,” he muttered, in his troubled manner.

“Tell me,” he demanded fiercely, stopping before a tree heavily laden with flowers, “why are you so red today?”

And the roses spoke and replied, “Because of the innocent blood that has been shed. It is royal blood that has drenched the ground, and none but crimson roses shall bloom this year in Persia.”

“Bah!” screamed the enraged Shah and, drawing his scimitar, he began hacking right and left among the flowers. The beautiful blooms fell to the ground in great showers until the garden was so littered with the red petals that it seemed flooded with a pool of blood. At last only one tree remained, and as the Shah raised his sword to cut it down, an old man stepped from behind it and confronted the king.

“Who art thou, and whence camest thou?” the monarch asked fiercely.

No answer did the old man make. Gazing sternly into the eyes of the Shah, he raised his hand suddenly and unexpectedly, and struck the king such a violent blow that he fell sprawling to the ground. He lay half-stunned among the red petals, looking up at the old man.

“Art thou not satisfied with the destruction thou hast wrought?” the old man asked. “Must thou take the life of the last rose tree?”

The old man stooped to pick up the scimitar which had fallen from the king’s grasp.

“No, no,” screamed Hormuz, fearing that he was to be slain. He scrambled to his knees and with clasped hands pleaded to the old man. “Take not my life,” he begged. “Spare me, and I shall spare the last tree and cherish it tenderly.”

“So be it,” said the old man, holding the sword above his head. It dropped to the ground, and looking up, Hormuz saw that the stranger had vanished.

The Shah awoke. His body trembled with fear, his head was wracked by a burning pain. He looked round shudderingly to see if the angry old man still stood above him with the threatening sword. Then he sent for his wizards.

“Expound to me my horrid dream,” he said.

Their interpretations, however, did not please him.

“Ye are fools,” he cried. “Make search and find me a man of wisdom who understands these mysteries. Seek a sage among the Jews.”

The royal servants hastened to do the king’s bidding. Full well they knew that when Hormuz was in a rage, lives were quickly forfeit.

They seized the aged rabbi of the city and brought him before the Shah.

“Canst thou interpret dreams?” asked the king, abruptly, dispensing with the usual ceremonies.

“I can explain the meaning of certain things,” returned the rabbi.

“Then fail not to unravel the mystery of my dream,” said Hormuz, and he related it. “The secret I must know,” he concluded, “or—-.” But he stopped. He was afraid to add the usual threat of death that morning.

“‘Tis a simple dream,” said the rabbi, slowly. “The things of which men–and even kings are but men–dream in their sleep are connected with the deeds performed by day. Thy garden represents the House of David which thou hast sought to destroy. The old man was King David himself, and thou hast promised to cherish and nurture his one remaining descendant.”

The Shah listened in silence. Then, with a flash in his eye he said, “But all the descendants of this King David were slain.”

“All but one,” said the rabbi. “There is a boy babe, born on the day the executions ceased.”

“Where is he?” asked Hormuz.

“Your vow….” the rabbi began, nervously, for he did not wish to hand over this child to death.

“My promise shall be faithfully carried out,” interrupted the monarch.

“The boy is in my house,” said the rabbi. “His mother, who escaped the massacre, died when he was born.”

“Bring him hither,” commanded Hormuz. “Fear not.”

From his finger he drew a ring and handed it to the learned man.

“This is my bond,” he said. “The possession of this ensures thy safety.”

The child was brought to the palace, and the Shah looked at him with intent gaze.

“He shall be brought up as a prince,” said the king. “Servants, attendants and slaves shall he have in great number to minister unto all his needs. He shall be treated with the utmost kindness. And because of my dream in the garden, I name him Bostanai.”

The Shah did this because “bostan” is the Persian word for rose garden.

He touched the child with his jeweled scepter and all present bowed low before the babe and showed him the respect and devotion due to a prince.

Hormuz, however, was too cruel to be quite satisfied. He feared to harm the boy, but he wanted some proof that Bostanai was really a descendant of King David. The child grew up into a handsome, clever youth, and Hormuz, partly out of fear, but partly because he had really grown to love the boy, kept him constantly by his side.

One day, while sitting in the bower in the garden, he watched the boy among the roses. The day was hot and a drowsiness came over the king. He had not slept in that bower since the night of his fateful dream, and he was not happy about doing so now. But he did not lack courage, and he called the boy to him.

“Bostanai,” he said, “stand guard by the door, and move not while I sleep.”

Hormuz slept soundly and peacefully for some time, and when he awoke he saw the lad standing motionless where he had placed himself.

“Bostanai,” he called, and when the boy turned, he was startled to see blood trickling from a wound on his face.

“What is that?” he asked, anxiously.

“The sting of a wasp,” Bostanai replied.

“Is it not painful?”

For answer, the boy only smiled.

“How did it happen?” asked the king.

“The wasp stung me while I stood guard.”

“But couldst thou not brush it away?”

“No,” replied the boy, proudly. “King David was my ancestor, and in the presence of a king I must stand motionless until bidden to make any movement.”

Then, before the king could catch him, he swooned from loss of blood, and fell to the ground. He soon recovered, however, and the Shah’s doubts were set at rest.

“I know now thou art truly of the House of David,” he said, “for none other could have shown such fortitude.”

Bostanai became the Shah’s favorite, and when he grew up he was made the ruler of a province. He lived happily, and through him the Jews of the land also lived in prosperity and peace.

Running and expanding this site requires resources: from maintaining our digital platform to sourcing and curating new content. With your help, we can grow our collection, improve accessibility, and bring these incredible narratives to an even wider audience. Your sponsorship enables us to keep the world’s stories alive and thriving. ♦ Visit our Support page

Why the Water-Snake Has no Poison

This myth explains why the water-snake lacks venom. The Python mother distributed poison to her snake offspring, enabling them to protect themselves. However, the water-snake, distracted by fishing, missed her summons. Upon returning late, he was denied poison due to his disobedience. Consequently, the water-snake’s bite is harmless, and he is neither feared nor avoided, serving as a lesson on the consequences of neglecting responsibility.

Source
Among Congo Cannibals
by John H. Weeks
Seeley, Service & Co.,London, 1913

► Themes of the story

Origin of Things: It provides an explanation for a natural phenomenon—the harmlessness of the water-snake’s bite.

Conflict with Authority: The water-snake’s disregard for his mother’s summons leads to negative consequences, highlighting the repercussions of defying authority.

Cultural Heroes: The Python mother serves as a foundational figure who imparts wisdom and enforces societal norms.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Bantu peoples

When the Python had given birth to all the snakes she said to them: “You have no poison now, but another day I will call you, and give to each of you a proper share of poison.” After a time the day arrived, and the Python called all her children to receive the promised gift. The green snake, the viper, the whip-snake, the diamond-headed snake all arrived, and each received his share of the poison so as to defend himself from his enemies. Wherever these snakes went on a journey everybody jumped out of their way, for if they did not they were bitten and suffered much pain.

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The Water-snake, however, instead of obeying his mother’s call, went off to the river to fish. By and by he became tired of fishing, and thought he would go and hear what his mother the Python wanted.

As he went he met the other snakes returning, and heard that they had received their gifts from their mother. On his arrival he asked her for his share of the poison.

But the Python said: “No, I called you, and instead of coming you went fishing, so now you have lost your share of the poison through disobedience.”

That is why the Water-snake is only laughed at when he bites, and no one thinks of moving out of his way, for he has no poison through disregarding his mother’s call.

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The Creation Story

In this origin myth, the world begins with only sea, sky, and a restless kite. The kite stirs the sea, leading the sky to create islands. The kite later discovers a bamboo from which a man and woman emerge. Ordered to marry, they birth humanity. Overcrowding drives their father to frighten the children, scattering them. Their hiding places determine their societal roles, from chiefs to free men, slaves, and eventually white people.

Source
Philippine Folk Tales
compiled and annotated by
Mabel Cook Cole
A.C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1916

► Themes of the story

Creation: The narrative describes the world’s beginning, detailing the emergence of land from the sea and sky, and the origin of humanity from a bamboo stalk.

Origin of Things: It explains natural phenomena, such as the formation of islands and the existence of different human races, providing cultural context for these occurrences.

Cultural Heroes: The first man and woman serve as foundational figures, symbolizing the ancestors from whom all people descend, shaping societal structures and hierarchies.

► From the same Region or People

Learn more about Philippines peoples

When the world first began there was no land, but only the stea and the sky, and between them was a kite. One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to light on one of the islands to build her nest, and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.

Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a child which was a bamboo.

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One day when this bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo, and out of one section came a man and from the other a woman.

Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different races of people.

After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around, and they wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on and the children became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all sides.

This so frightened the children that they fled in different directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house–some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several fled to the sea.

Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the Islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when their children came back they were the white people.

Running and expanding this site requires resources: from maintaining our digital platform to sourcing and curating new content. With your help, we can grow our collection, improve accessibility, and bring these incredible narratives to an even wider audience. Your sponsorship enables us to keep the world’s stories alive and thriving. ♦ Visit our Support page

In the Beginning

In the beginning, four beings lived on a tiny island with one bird. They sent the bird across the waters, and it returned with earth, rattan, and fruit. Melu, the greatest of the four, shaped the earth and planted seeds, creating a lush world. To populate it, they first attempted to make people from wax but failed. Using clay, they succeeded, leaving the mark of Melu’s hurried touch on human faces.

Source
Philippine Folk Tales
compiled and annotated by
Mabel Cook Cole
A.C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1916

► Themes of the story

Creation: The narrative describes the formation of the earth by Melu, the greatest of the four beings, who shapes the land and plants seeds to create a lush world.

Origin of Things: It explains natural phenomena, such as the presence of rattan and fruit-bearing trees, and cultural practices, like the mark on human faces attributed to Melu’s hurried touch.

Cultural Heroes: Melu and his companions serve as foundational figures who shape the world and humanity, playing a crucial role in the cultural heritage of the Bilaan people.

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From the , , lore

Learn more about Philippines peoples

In the beginning there were four beings, and they lived on an island no larger than a hat. On this island there were no trees or grass or any other living thing besides these four people and one bird. One day they sent this bird out across the waters to see what he could find, and when he returned he brought some earth, a piece of rattan, and some fruit. Melu, the greatest of the four, took the soil and shaped it and beat it with a paddle in the same manner in which a woman shapes pots of clay, and when he finished he had made the earth. Then he planted the seeds from the fruit, and they grew until there was much rattan and many trees bearing fruit.

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The four beings watched the growth for a long time and were well pleased with the work, but finally Melu said:

“Of what use is this earth and all the rattan and fruit if there are no people?”

And the others replied, “Let us make some people out of wax.”

So they took some wax and worked long, fashioning it into forms, but when they brought them to the fire the wax melted, and they saw that men could not be made in that way.

Next they decided to try to use dirt in making people, and Melu and one of his companions began working on that. All went well till they were ready to make the noses. The companion, who was working on that part, put them on upside down. Melu told him that the people would drown if he left them that way, but he refused to change them.

When his back was turned, however, Melu seized the noses, one by one, and turned them as they now are. But he was in such a hurry that he pressed his finger at the root, and it left a mark in the soft clay which you can still see on the faces of people.

Running and expanding this site requires resources: from maintaining our digital platform to sourcing and curating new content. With your help, we can grow our collection, improve accessibility, and bring these incredible narratives to an even wider audience. Your sponsorship enables us to keep the world’s stories alive and thriving. ♦ Visit our Support page