The regions below

In Eskimo belief, a spirit lingers near its earthly home for three days after death before journeying to the land of the nu’namiut, accessed through a dark tunnel guarded by a dog. There, spirits live in shadowy villages, relying on grave offerings for sustenance. Though free from cold and sleet, the underworld is dark and somber, reflecting the spirits’ dependence on the living.

Source:
The Labrador Eskimo
by E.W. Hawkes
[Canada, Department of Mines]
Geological Survey, Memoir 91
Anthropological Series no. 14
Ottawa, 1916

► Themes of the story

Underworld Journey: The spirit’s passage through a dark tunnel guarded by a dog to reach the land of the nu’namiut exemplifies a venture into the realm of the dead.

Ancestral Spirits: In the underworld, the spirit resides with relatives, reflecting the connection to and influence of forebears on the present.

Loss and Renewal: The transition from the earthly life to the underworld signifies a cycle of death and the continuation of existence in another form.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

For three days after an Eskimo dies, the spirit lingers around the scenes of its earthly existence. Then people must be very careful not to offend it. After taking a last look at its native village, it sets out for the land of the nu’namiut, “those who dwell in (beneath) the earth.” The way to the world beneath lies through a long dark tunnel guarded by a big dog (?). He is always on the lookout for unwary spirits. Having arrived at the land of the nu’namiut, the spirit finds them dwelling in villages much as on the earth. He seeks out the location of his relatives and lives with them. They lead a monotonous existence depending on the offerings made at their graves for food and drink. If their relatives neglect them, they go hungry and naked. There is no cold nor sleet in the world beneath, but it is dark and gloomy.

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Kunigseq

Kunigseq, a wizard, descended into the underworld with the aid of his helping spirits. Encountering landscapes and spirits of his deceased family, he resisted the temptation to stay. The underworld, depicted as serene and prosperous, offered him berries and warmth. Returning to earth, Kunigseq faced despair after his son’s death and chose to join the underworld, leaving behind a haunting tale of longing and acceptance.

Source:
Eskimo Folk-Tales
collected by Knud Rasmussen
[Copenhagen, Christiania], 1921

► Themes of the story

Underworld Journey: Kunigseq’s descent into the underworld to encounter deceased family members and explore the afterlife is a classic representation of a journey into realms beyond the living.

Ancestral Spirits: During his journey, Kunigseq meets his departed mother and brother, highlighting the connection and influence of ancestral spirits on the living.

Loss and Renewal: After experiencing the underworld and facing the death of his son, Kunigseq chooses to join the underworld permanently, reflecting themes of loss, acceptance, and the cyclical nature of life and death.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about Inuit peoples

There was once a wizard whose name was Kunigseq.

One day, when he was about to call on his helping spirits and make a flight down into the underworld, he gave orders that the floor should be swilled with salt water, to take off the evil smell which might otherwise frighten his helping spirits away.

Then he began to call upon his helping spirits, and without moving his body, began to pass downward through the floor.

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And down he went. On his way he came to a reef, which was covered with weed, and therefore so slippery that none could pass that way. And as he could not pass, his helping spirit lay down beside him, and by placing his foot upon the spirit, he was able to pass.

And on he went, and came to a great slope covered with heather. Far down in the underworld, men say, the land is level, and the hills are small; there is sun down there, and the sky is also like that which we see from the earth.

Suddenly he heard one crying: “Here comes Kunigseq.”

By the side of a little river he saw some children looking for greyfish.

And before he had reached the houses of men, he met his mother, who had gone out to gather berries. When he came up to her, she tried again and again to kiss him, but his helping spirit thrust her aside.

“He is only here on a visit,” said the spirit.

Then she offered him some berries, and these he was about to put in his mouth, when the spirit said: “If you eat of them, you will never return.”

A little after, he caught sight of his dead brother, and then his mother said: “Why do you wish to return to earth again? Your kin are here. And look down on the sea-shore; see the great stores of dried meat. Many seal are caught here, and it is a good place to be; there is no snow, and a beautiful open sea.”

The sea lay smooth, without the slightest wind. Two kayaks were rowing towards land. Now and again they threw their bird darts, and they could be heard to laugh.

“I will come again when I die,” said Kunigseq.

Some kayaks lay drying on a little island; they were those of men who had just lost their lives when out in their kayaks.

And it is told that the people of the underworld said to Kunigseq: “When you return to earth, send us some ice, for we thirst for cold water down here.”

After that, Kunigseq went back to earth, but it is said that his son fell sick soon afterwards, and died. And then Kunigseq did not care to live any longer, having seen what it was like in the underworld. So he rowed out in his kayak, and caught a guillemot, and a little after, he caught a raven, and having eaten these one after the other, he died. And then they threw him out into the sea.

The natives of Labrador

The Labrador natives recount how their ancestors once coexisted with the tunneks (or tunnit), who later fled north to Killinek out of fear. Known for their strength and tools made from slate, hornstone, and crystal, the tunneks lived distinct lives, using sealskins and constructing stone houses. Their legacy endures in folklore and ruins, reflecting their formidable abilities and unique culture.

Source:
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo
by Henry Rink
[William Blackwood and Sons]
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Cultural Heroes: The narrative highlights the Tunnit as foundational figures whose legacy influences the Labrador Inuit’s cultural history.

Conflict with Authority: The story depicts the tensions and eventual displacement of the Tunnit due to conflicts with the Inuit, reflecting challenges to established groups.

Ancestral Spirits: The tale underscores the enduring impact of the Tunnit on the Inuit, with their stories and remnants influencing present cultural identity.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Abridged version of the story.

The natives of Labrador tell how our ancestors and the tunneks (or tunnit, in Greenlandish tornit, plural of tunek) in days of yore lived together; but the tunneks fled from fear of our people, who used to drill holes in their foreheads while yet alive. With this view they removed from here to the north, crossing over to Killinek (Cape Chudleigh). While dwelling among us they had sealskins with the blubber attached for bedrobes. Their clothes were made in the same way. Their weapons were formed of slate and hornstone, and their drills of crystal. They were strong and formidable, especially one of them, called Jauranat, from which is formed javianarpok (Greenlandish, navianarpok).

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Huge blocks of stone are still to be seen which they were able to move. Some ruins of their houses are also to be found here and there in our country, chiefly upon the islands, having been built of stones, and differing from the abodes of our people. One of our ancestors when kayaking had a tunnek for his companion, who had a bird-spear, the points of which were made of walrus-tooth.

This tradition is compiled from several manuscripts in German from the missionaries in Labrador, in which the alien nation, expelled by the present inhabitants, are called partly “Die Tunnit,” and partly “Die Grönlaender.” Very probably these denominations have arisen from a misunderstanding, induced by inquiries put to the natives as to their knowing anything about the Greenlanders. The tunnit are almost certainly identical with the tornit or inlanders of the Greenland tales. The Eskimo of Cumberland Inlet speak about the tunudlermiut, which signifies people living in the inland. The present Indians of Labrador are called by the Eskimo of the same country aullak; but it is possible they distinguish between these and the traditional or fabulous inlanders. However, the most striking incongruity is that of the tunnit having had their abodes on the islands, which looks as if ancient settlers of European race are hinted at. Be this as it may, the tradition of the Labradorans should be more closely examined.

The inhabitants of Akilinek

Iviangersook, a traveler, eventually settled in Akilinek, leaving descendants. Years later, northerners crossing the ice encountered a distant crevice and exchanged words with people identifying as Iviangersook’s descendants. Both groups alternated listing the products of their homesteads, fostering a connection despite the separation. This interaction highlights enduring ties across vast distances and the legacy of shared lineage.

Source:
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo
by Henry Rink
[William Blackwood and Sons]
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Ancestral Spirits: The narrative emphasizes the enduring connection between Iviangersook’s descendants and their ancestors, highlighting the influence of lineage across generations.

Echoes of the Past: The encounter between the northerners and Iviangersook’s descendants underscores how historical deeds and ancestral ties continue to impact and resonate in the present.

Community and Isolation: The story contrasts the separation of the groups by physical distance with their efforts to establish a sense of community through the exchange of information about their homesteads.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Abridged version of the story.

Iviangersook, while travelling far and wide for some time, settled down in Akilinek, leaving descendants there.

Many years after, some people from the farthest north, in crossing the ice, came to a crevice far off the coast, and had some talk with people who appeared on the opposite side and announced themselves as Iviangersook’s descendants in Akilinek.

The countrymen from each side alternately enumerated all the products of their homesteads.

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An old man lost his only son

An old man mourned his son, who died during a reindeer-hunting trip, by visiting his grave. During one visit, he encountered and killed an inlander he mistook for a threat. Later, another inlander revealed he, too, lost a son while seal-hunting, leading the old man to realize it was the man he had killed. Ashamed, he left in his skiff and never returned.

Source:
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo
by Henry Rink
[William Blackwood and Sons]
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Loss and Renewal: The narrative centers on the old man’s profound grief following his son’s death, highlighting the universal experience of loss and the subsequent journey toward emotional renewal.

Revenge and Justice: In his sorrow, the old man mistakenly kills an innocent inlander, believing him to be a threat. This act underscores the complexities of seeking justice and the potential for misguided vengeance born from pain.

Ancestral Spirits: The old man’s repeated visits to his son’s grave reflect a deep connection to his lineage, emphasizing the influence of ancestral bonds and the ways in which the departed continue to impact the living.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Abridged version of the story.

An old man lost his only son when they were both reindeer-hunting up the country. After returning home he often used to visit his son’s grave. Kayaking up the firth with this view, he once right before him saw an inlander pulling himself through the water without any kayak (“using the fog as kayak”), and after some angry words, he killed the inlander. Another time, when he was again visiting the grave, he was surprised at the sight of an inlander, who questioned him as to the cause of his grief. “Yonder wretched heap of stones is the only object of my distress,” he answered. The inlander then told him how he also had, some time ago, lost a son who had been seal-hunting. The old man made out that it must have been the one he had killed; on which he pretended to be expected home, pushed off in his skiff, and never more visited the grave of his son.

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Singajuk and his descendants

Mangilak, born frail and swaddled in an eider-duck skin, overcame early struggles to become a legendary Greenlandic figure. A skilled hunter and kayaker, he learned a calming spell from a gull and married twice, losing his first wife but gaining wisdom from her spirit. Though baptized, Mangilak retained his angakok powers. His lineage included Akajarok, whose descendants shared his remarkable story.

Source:
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo
by Henry Rink
[William Blackwood and Sons]
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Transformation: Mangilak’s journey from a frail infant to a powerful hunter and angakok (shaman) embodies significant physical and spiritual transformation.

Supernatural Beings: His interactions with his deceased first wife, who provides him with wisdom from beyond the grave, highlight encounters with the supernatural.

Ancestral Spirits: The narrative emphasizes the influence of ancestors and the continuation of spiritual wisdom through generations, as seen in Mangilak’s lineage and the transmission of his story.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Abridged version of the story.

Singajuk was a celebrated hunter living in Kangek (near Godthaab). His wife miscarried, and brought forth a poor little wretch of a child, that was swaddled in the skin of an eider-duck, and had to be fostered with the utmost care to keep it alive. This child was called Mangilak, and became one of the most powerful of men. His first deed was killing an ingnersuak. Afterwards he was once caught in a gale of wind at sea, but espying a solitary spot of smooth water and a gull swimming in it, by dint of listening to its voice he learned a spell for procuring a calm; and from that time he was not to be equalled in kayaking. His mother then persuaded him to marry, and he took a wife, who, however, shortly afterwards died.

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Being almost an angakok, he used to visit her grave and talk with the deceased, and on one occasion she gave him a mussel-shell containing a drink to endow him with angakok wisdom. Mangilak married a second wife, and got a son, called Akajarok, whose daughter became the grandmother of the man who related this story. Akajarok died a Christian. Mangilak also was baptised, but was too full of angakok wisdom to become more than a nominal Christian.

The visiting animals

An old man grieving his son’s death built a winter-house near the grave. One evening, three mysterious visitors—a tall man, a flat-nosed man, and a small, pale figure—arrived. They requested unusual items before departing. The old man was astonished to see them transform into a reindeer, a fox, and a hare as they left, with the hare reportedly seeking something for a new tooth.

Source:
Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo
by Henry Rink
[William Blackwood and Sons]
Edinburgh and London, 1875

► Themes of the story

Supernatural Beings: The visitors reveal their true forms as a reindeer, a fox, and a hare, indicating interactions with supernatural entities.

Transformation: The mysterious visitors undergo physical changes, shifting from human-like appearances to animal forms.

Ancestral Spirits: The old man’s grief and the subsequent visitations suggest a connection between the living and the spiritual realm, possibly representing ancestral spirits offering guidance or comfort.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Arctic Region
  - Inuit/Eskimo Lore

Learn more about the Inuit peoples

Abridged version of the story.

An old man, while staying in a firth to fish for salmon, lost his son, who died at some distance up the country. In his grief he could not persuade himself to leave his son’s grave, and he therefore put up his winter-house on the spot. In this lonely abode they were once surprised by seeing three men entering the house, one of them tall and long-nosed, the other smaller and with a flat nose, and the last of very small stature and white as snow. After passing the evening talking with the host, the short-nosed man, before starting, asked for a piece of sole-leather, and the white one wanted a piece of walrus-tooth. The old man saw the departing visitors out, but when they left him, stood dumfoundered at seeing them bounding off in the shape of a reindeer, a fox, and a hare. It is said that the hare had need of something for a new tooth.

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Strange Meetings

A traveler encounters mysterious scenes: a lean mare, a fat mare, a serpent stuck in a hole, a restless sheep, and a man playing ball whose children are old. An old man interprets them, revealing metaphors for human behaviors: greed, sacrifice, the permanence of words, household woes, and the influence of spousal choices on aging and familial outcomes. These lessons underscore life’s moral and social complexities.

Source
Moorish Literature
   romantic ballads, tales of the Berbers,
   stories of the Kabyles, folk-lore,
   and national traditions
The Colonial Press,
   London, New York, 1901

► Themes of the story

Family Dynamics: The story reflects on how individual choices, like selecting a spouse, can influence the aging process and the well-being of one’s children, emphasizing the importance of family decisions.

Ancestral Spirits: The old man’s interpretations connect the traveler’s experiences to ancestral wisdom, suggesting that understanding the past can provide guidance for present behavior.

Transformation through Love: The narrative implies that the choice of a spouse (a form of love) can lead to personal transformation, affecting one’s aging process and the future of one’s offspring.

► From the same Region or People

North Africa
- Berber Lore

Learn more about the Berber peoples

Translated by Réne Basset
and Chauncey C. Starkweather

Once upon a time a man was on a journey and he met a mare who grazed in the meadow. She was thin, lean, and had only skin and bone.

He went on until he came to a place where he found a mare which was fat, although she did not eat.

He went on further until he met a sheep which kicked against a rock till evening to pass the night there.

Advancing he met a serpent which hung in a hole from which it could not get out. Farther on, he saw a man who played with a ball, and his children were old men.

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He came to an old man who said to him: “I will explain all that to you. The lean mare which you saw represents the rich man whose brothers are poor. The fat mare represents the poor man whose brothers are rich. The serpent which swings unable to enter nor to leave the hole is the picture of the word which once spoken and heard can never go back.The sheep which kicks against the rock to pass the night there, is the man who has an evil house. The one whose children you saw aged while he was playing ball, what does he represent? That is the man who has taken a pretty wife and does not grow old. His children have taken bad ones.”

The Haunted Garden

A wealthy man refused to let his daughters marry despite their desires. Secretly meeting their suitors in the garden, the sisters were discovered by their father, who killed and buried them there before departing on a pilgrimage. Later, a musician playing in the garden encountered the sisters’ spirits, who revealed hidden treasure. Grateful, the musician unearthed it, became rich, and the sisters returned to their graves.

Source
Moorish Literature
   romantic ballads, tales of the Berbers,
   stories of the Kabyles, folk-lore,
   and national traditions
The Colonial Press,
   London, New York, 1901

► Themes of the story

Forbidden Love: The daughters’ secret meetings with their suitors defy their father’s prohibitions.

Ancestral Spirits: The spirits of the deceased daughters interact with the living musician, guiding him to the hidden treasure.

Hidden or Forbidden Realms: The garden serves as a secret meeting place and later as the site where hidden treasure is revealed.

► From the same Region or People

North Africa
- Berber Lore

Learn more about the Berber peoples

Translated by Réne Basset
and Chauncey C. Starkweather

A man who possessed much money had two daughters. The son of the caliph of the King asked for one of them, and the son of the cadi asked for the other, but their father would not let them marry, although they desired it. He had a garden near his house. When it was night, the young girls went there, the young men came to meet them, and they passed the night in conversation. One night their father saw them. The next morning he killed his daughters, buried them in his garden, and went on a pilgrimage. That lasted so until one night the son of the cadi and the son of the caliph went to a young man who knew how to play on the flute and the rebab. “Come with us,” they said to him, “into the garden of the man who will not give us his daughters in marriage. You shall play for us on your instruments.”

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They agreed to meet there that night. The musician went to the garden, but the two young men did not go. The musician remained and played his music alone. In the middle of the night two lamps appeared, and the two young girls came out of the ground under the lamps. They said to the musician: “We are two sisters, daughters of the owner of the garden. Our father killed us and buried us here. You, you are our brother for this night. We will give you the money which our father has hidden in three pots. Dig here,” they added. He obeyed, found the three pots, took them away, and became rich, while the two girls returned to their graves.

Djokhrane and the Jays

Djokhrane, a Roman ancestor of Mahomet Amokrane’s grandfather, lived in T’kout during Roman times. In a conflict with a fellow Roman, Djokhrane was aided by a jay that pecked his adversary’s eyes, ensuring his victory. Grateful, Djokhrane forbade his descendants from eating jays, instructing them to free any captured. To this day, his descendants honor this tradition by liberating jays.

Source
Moorish Literature
   romantic ballads, tales of the Berbers,
   stories of the Kabyles, folk-lore,
   and national traditions
The Colonial Press,
   London, New York, 1901

► Themes of the story

Divine Intervention: The bird’s timely assistance suggests a higher power guiding Djokhrane to victory.

Moral Lessons: The tale teaches gratitude and respect for nature, as Djokhrane’s descendants continue to honor his pact with the jay.

Ancestral Spirits: The story emphasizes the importance of ancestral traditions and the influence of forebears on present customs.

► From the same Region or People

North Africa
- Berber Lore

Learn more about the Berber peoples

Translated by G. Mercier
and Chauncey C. Starkweather

The ancestor of the grandfather of Mahomet Amokrane was named Djokhrane. He was a Roman of old times, who lived at T’kout at the period of the Romans. One of his countrymen rose against them, and they fought. This Roman had the advantage, until a bird of the kind called jays came to the assistance of Djokhrane, and pecked the Roman in the eyes until he saved his adversary. From that time forth he remained a friend to Djokhrane. The latter said to his children:

“As long as you live, never eat this bird. If you meet anyone who brings one of these birds to eat, buy it and set it free.” To this day when anyone brings a jay to one of his descendants, he buys it for silver and gives it liberty. This story is true, and is not a lie.

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