The virgin birth

A chief’s daughter secretly bears a child by a young boy, prompting the tribe’s paternity-test ritual: the infant is passed among suitors to see whom it urinates on. A deceitful suitor is unmasked when the true father’s bond triggers the correct result. Ostracized for a time, the young couple thrives on hunting, leading the struggling villagers to return and beseech them for meat.

Source:
Notes on the Eastern Cree
and Northern Saulteaux
by Alanson Skinner
The American Museum
of Natural History
Anthropological Papers
Volume IX, Part 1
New York, 1911

► Themes of the story

Family Dynamics: It centers on the relationships between the chief’s daughter, her suitors, and her young secret lover.

Revenge and Justice: The community exposes the liar and establishes rightful parenthood through their customary trial.

Community and Isolation: After the trial, the true parents are shunned until the young father’s hunting success forces the villagers to return and plead for aid.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Cree Lore

Learn more about the Cree people

Narrated by Joe Iserhoff.

Once, in the old days, there was a very beautiful girl who was a chief’s daughter. All the young men loved her et cum ea coire volebant [and they wanted to have sex with her]. In those days, it was customary for quisquan cum virgine coiiseet [who will sleep with a virgin] to also marry her. But she would have nothing to do with them.

In the village, there was a certain young boy who also loved her but he was so young that everybody laughed at him. However, during the winter he watched the girl, et quondocumque mincture exiret eodem loco minxit [and whenever he felt the need to urinate, he did it always at her place].

After a time, the girl became pregnant from this cause, and gave birth to a child.

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The chief called all the young men together and when they had gathered in the wigwam he announced that he would pass the child about and when the father took the child in his arms infantum in patrem mincturum [the child will urinate on his father]. This was done.

There was a certain young man in the village who loved the girl and he filled his mouth with spittle. When the child was passed to him he permitted it to run out all over him and cried, “I am the child’s father, you can see in me minxit [he urinated on me].” But some in the crowd saw what he had done and they called out, “You lie,” so he was disappointed. The child was passed on and when it reached its father verum in ilium minxit [he really peed on him].

Then the young boy took his wife and settled down. The rest of the people were angry (jealous) at him, and moved away, leaving him alone. He went hunting and was very successful. The rest of the people were not, however, and they nearly starved. At length, they heard he had meat and returned and begged for some.

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The killing of the trader at Fort St. John

A young man disobeys a white trader’s orders and returns to his community. Angered, the trader poisons him. In retaliation, the young man’s kin kill the trader and ambush his returning crew, eliminating them all. They seize the store’s goods, living off them for years. Once depleted, they revert to traditional hunting, avoiding white settlements out of fear, and relying solely on bows and arrows.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Revenge and Justice: The community seeks retribution for the young man’s death by killing the trader and his associates.

Conflict with Authority: The young man’s initial disobedience and the subsequent violent response from his community represent a challenge to the trader’s authority.

Community and Isolation: Following the conflict, the community isolates themselves, avoiding contact with white men out of fear.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

A white man gave the young man orders but notwithstanding, he went back to his people. The trader was angry and killed the boy with medicine (poison). His friends knew this had happened and went to the post [this refers to the trading post at Fort St. John, called by the Beaver gtitkwe, “Spruce House.” The first post stood on the east side of North Pine River, near where it enters the Peace] and killed the trader. The young men attached to the post had gone for wood in a boat. The Beaver were lying in wait for them. When they returned and the white men stepped ashore they shot them and killed them all. The steersman jumped into the water. He came to the surface far out in the stream. They shot at him and killed him.

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They took the goods from the store and lived many years on them. When they were gone they lived with “their bows and arrows. They remained in the woods and did not visit a white man’s house because they were afraid. From that time they increased, living with their bows and arrows, not having gunpowder.

Second version. It seems that the white traders first had a trading post at Pine River. The Beaver Indians killed the man in charge of the post, and all his servants. After that these Indians kept away from white people, and were afraid to go near them thinking they would be killed. Some time after they built another post which has remained until the present time.

A man and his wife alone escape the Cree

In a time of famine, a group of Beaver people hurried to a lake, hoping to find fish. Upon arrival, they were ambushed by the Cree, who killed all except one nearly starved man. He reunited with his wife, and they hid in the snow for four days without fire. When the man returned to the lake, he found the bodies of his slain people.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Conflict with Nature: The couple endures extreme conditions, sleeping in the snow without fire, highlighting their struggle against the harsh natural environment.

War and Peace: The story centers around the violent conflict with the Cree, resulting in the massacre of the man’s community.

Community and Isolation: Following the attack, the couple finds themselves isolated, being the sole survivors of their community.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

At first the people were starving. One man was nearly starved. They were hurrying to the lake for fish. “We will get to the fish by tomorrow,” they said. When they came down to the lake the Cree were there and killed them all except the miserable man. He was the only one that survived. He had started back after his wife and met her when she was nearly to the lake. He called to her to come to him. She went there and they cleared away the snow and lay down and slept four days without a fire. When the sun rose they got up and the man started over to the lake. Out on it was a black spot which proved to be the bodies of the people who had been killed. Not one of the Beaver was alive.

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An entire band is killed by the Cree

A starving band of Beaver Indians hurried toward a fish lake, hoping to find sustenance. Upon arrival, they encountered the Cree. Both groups engaged in combat, but the Cree, being more numerous and stronger, killed all the Beaver warriors. Subsequently, the Cree also killed the Beaver women and children, leaving none alive.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

War and Peace: The narrative centers on a violent conflict between two groups, the Beaver and the Cree, resulting in the complete annihilation of the Beaver band.

Tragic Flaw: The encounter suggests a possible lack of preparedness or misjudgment on the part of the Beaver, leading to their ultimate demise.

Community and Isolation: The story reflects on the fate of a community facing isolation and the devastating consequences of their encounter with a more powerful adversary.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

A band of Indians were traveling in a starving condition. They were hastening frantically towards a fish lake. “We shall get there tomorrow,” they were saying. They came to the lake the next evening only to find the Cree there. When they came to an open place each party saw the other. There was nothing they could do so they began to kill each other. There were many of the Cree and they were stronger than the Beaver. The Beaver were not able to kill a single one of the Cree but were themselves killed to a man. Then the women and children came along behind and the Cree killed them all. They were slaughtered to the last one.

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A man saves his parents-in-law from starving

In a time of famine, a man noticed his mother-in-law lagging behind due to hunger. He instructed her to wait and, after making noises to distract her, hunted and killed two moose. Meanwhile, his father-in-law had also hunted a bear. Reuniting, they sustained themselves with the meat and later rejoined their group, who had moved on and were suffering from starvation.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Sacrifice: The son-in-law prioritizes the well-being of his parents-in-law, sharing his hunted meat to ensure their survival during a famine.

Community and Isolation: The son-in-law and his parents-in-law are isolated from the larger group, highlighting themes of familial bonds and the dynamics of community support versus abandonment.

Conflict with Nature: The struggle to find food and survive against the backdrop of a harsh, unforgiving natural environment underscores this theme.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

One time the people were starving and were traveling where there was a cache. One old woman was so hungry she sat down. Her son-in-law on ahead knew that his mother-in-law had sat down. His brother was far away. “Sit here and wait for me,” he said to her. “If I go in the timber, and if you hear something do not pay any attention to it.” Her son-in-law made a noise by breaking a stick, but she did not go to him. She could almost see her son-in-law, who was making a noise with his bowstring. He had killed two cow moose. His father-in-law had been sitting over there with his wife. The son-in-law went again to bring the meat. His father-in-law who had killed a bear, had also gone for the meat. They met each other there and traveled on happily.

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Because the other people had deserted them, they did not follow after them. They lived happily where they were, using the meat of the animals which they had killed for food. Some time after, they followed the remainder of the band, and came to the cache. The meat was gone. These first comers moved away again, but they did not succeed in killing anything and they nearly died of starvation. Those who came last had meat, but they did net share with those who came first to the cache.

A young man tries to escape the responsibility of parenthood

In a time of scarcity, a young man persuades his father to camp separately from their group. Despite initial doubts, the young man successfully hunts two moose, providing for his family. Later, he rejoins the main group and faces criticism over a woman, leading him to return to his father’s camp. Unbeknownst to him, he has fathered a child, whom his mother eagerly accepts, hoping the child will become a hunting partner for her son.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Family Dynamics: The narrative centers on the relationships within a family, highlighting the young man’s attempt to escape his role as a parent and his parents’ willingness to assume responsibility for their grandchild.

Conflict with Authority: The young man’s decision to abandon his parental duties can be seen as a challenge to societal and familial expectations regarding responsibility and duty.

Community and Isolation: The young man’s actions lead to a form of isolation as he distances himself from his familial and societal roles, contrasting with the communal approach of his parents.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

The people were very hungry. It seemed as if they would not live. They had made a cache and were going to that. When they were not yet in sight of it, the son of an old man suggested they camp about alone. “We cannot do that,” his father said, “we shall die.” The young man insisted that they camp by themselves. “Are you able to keep the fire pushed together if we do as you say? ‘ the father asked his son. “Yes, I will keep the fire pushed together,” the son promised. “Well, start off in the direction you want to go,” the father said. The young man started off and left a big pile of wood as a sign of the place where they were to camp. “Why do not you look after things? You said you would keep the fire pushed together. What is the matter?” his father said.

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“You said you would push the fire together. You do not act like a man. My children would be fed at the cache and now, because you talked that way, I fear they will die,” the old man said. The young man took the snares and set two for moose. Before long the snares made a noise and two moose had been caught. The old man moved the camp to them. “Father, I am going ahead where the other people are,” the young man said. “Do not go,” his father said, but the boy insisted he would go there.

He started off and came where the other people were. They scolded him because of a woman. Soon after that he went back to his father’s camp. The old man was on ahead. A woman had given birth to a child of which he was the father. “My grandchild,” the woman said, “I wonder whose it is?” “I guess it is that young man’s child,” someone said. The old man’s wife asked if it was a boy. “Yes, it is a boy,” they told her. “Go after him quickly,” the old woman said. “I will raise it. I have one child and this one will be his partner and they will hunt together.”

The equally matched magicians

Two rival magicians transform into a bear and a buffalo, respectively, to confront each other. Realizing they are equally matched and unable to gain an advantage, they exchange remarks about each other’s perceived weaknesses. Recognizing their equality in power, they decide to make peace and become friends.

Source:
The Beaver Indians
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 4
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Cunning and Deception: Each individual uses transformation as a tactic, possibly to gain an advantage over the other.

Moral Lessons: The story imparts a lesson about the futility of jealousy and the value of recognizing equality, leading to reconciliation.

Community and Isolation: The narrative begins with one man isolating himself due to jealousy, which ultimately leads to a confrontation and subsequent reconciliation, reflecting themes of estrangement and reunion within a community.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Dane-zaa Lore

Learn more about the Dane-zaa people

The people were jealous of each other and because of that one man had camped alone. A party of Indians started to go to this man’s camp, but when they came within sight of it the man who was jealous of him said he would go to the camp alone. He started toward it changing himself into a bear when he came near. The people saw him as he was running along and warned the man for whom he was coming that his enemy was approaching. When the man heard what was said he turned himself into a buffalo and jumped out. They met each other; the one a buffalo and the other a bear. Neither could get the advantage over the other because they were afraid of each other.

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Then the man who was a buffalo spoke to the man who was a bear saying, “Your food is so short you are saying to yourself, ‘What can I do?’ and that way you run toward me.” The bear too, said to the buffalo, “You, too, because your teeth are short you are saying to yourself, ‘What can I do?’ That is the matter with you.” They were both alike in power and immediately made friends.

The bear and the man

A man suspects a bear is pulling on his canoe’s gunwale and discovers he’s correct. The bear invites him to find a creek abundant with fish, but their journey extends into autumn without success. They build a shelter for winter, with the bear offering sustenance to the man. In spring, the man’s people find them and kill the bear. The man mourns his companion’s death, attributing his tears to smoke when questioned.

Source:
Chipewyan Tales
by Robert Harry Lowie
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 3
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Sacrifice: The bear sacrifices itself to ensure the man’s survival and reunion with his people.

Transformation through Love: The bond between the man and the bear leads to personal growth and a deep sense of loss upon the bear’s death.

Community and Isolation: The man experiences isolation during his time with the bear and later reintegration into his community, highlighting the contrasts between solitude and belonging.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Chipewyan Lore

Learn more about the Chipewyan people

Once a man was cutting out the gunwale of his canoe in the brush. He carried it homewards, one end on his shoulder, the other trailing on the ground. From time to time it seemed to get heavier, and he said to himself, “I am sure, a bear is pulling at the wood.” He turned around, and saw it was really a bear. The Bear said, “Do you hear the noise of the creek near by?” The man said, “Yes.” “There are lots of fish there, let us go thither.” They started off. The bear bade him leave his wood behind, and he did so. They walked on and on for many days, and by autumn they had not yet reached the creek. Then the Bear said, “Let us make a house.” He dug a hole in the ground, and told his companion to get grass to stop up the entrance. They went inside, and the boy was told to sit farthest from the door.

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“If you get thirsty,” said the Bear, [said to be a male by the narrator] “you may suck me, and if you get hungry, you can do the same. Thus you will be able to live with me all winter.”

They lived together in the cave. Towards spring, the Bear said, “Some of your friends are thinking of you and will soon be thinking of me.” When the snow began to melt he said, “Perhaps tomorrow your people will be here. Make a mark with your hand outside the cave, so they’ll know that you are here and won’t shoot inside.” Next day they heard a noise above, and snow began to fall down the air-hole. The Chipewyan detected the mark of the boy’s hand and said, “Surely some person is inside.” The Bear said to the boy, “Tell them there is a bear-man here. If they kill me, you may eat my flesh, but not my entrails, though your friends may.” The boy went out, and the people shot the bear, made a big fire, roasted him and feasted on him. The boy went on the opposite side of the fire, where it was smoky, and began to cry on account of his friend’s death. When they asked him why he cried he said it was on account of the smoke.

The death of Edalakone

Edalakone becomes angry with his wife and daughter, departing alone in his canoe, declaring he will no longer live with them. After two days, a search party follows his tracks, eventually finding him dead in the wilderness, with one of his dogs lying at his back. His decision to leave in anger leads to his demise.

Source:
Chipewyan Texts
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 1
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Family Dynamics: The narrative begins with Edalakone becoming angry with his wife and daughter, leading to his departure. This highlights complex relationships within the family.

Tragic Flaw: Edalakone’s anger drives him to isolate himself, ultimately leading to his demise, suggesting a personal weakness contributing to his fate.

Community and Isolation: Edalakone’s decision to leave his family results in his isolation, contrasting with the community’s collective effort to search for him.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Chipewyan Lore

Learn more about the Chipewyan people

Edalakone became angry with his wife and daughter. He went away from them in his canoe, saying, “I will not live with you longer.” After he had been gone two days, we went to look for him. Then next day, many joined in the search. Although it was summer, we found his tracks which we followed until noon. While we were stopping for lunch one of the two dogs which had left with him returned to our fire. There were eight men and two women in the company. When we had eaten, we again followed the tracks. After we had gone about half a mile, the three of us who were ahead, thought we saw something. An old man named Samuel Egu asked us to wait for him while he went ahead. When he had gone forward about twenty paces, he stopped. There was Edalakone with one of the dogs lying at his back. Samuel started to laugh but did not. Edalakone lay there dead. His going away angry into the brush did not turn out well for him. The others came there where we were.

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Ebedaholtihe

The Chipewyan and Cree tribes clashed over fishing rights, leading to a battle that left only one survivor from each side. The two men attempted to fish together using their own muscles as hook and line. Later, the Cree warned of a dangerous individual named Ebedaholtihe. When the Cree tried to burn the Chipewyan survivor, he summoned otters that attacked and killed his assailants. Subsequently, he married a Cree woman and integrated into their community.

Source:
Chipewyan Texts
by Pliny Earle Goddard
The American Museum of Natural History – Anthropological Papers
Volume X, Part 1
New York, 1912

► Themes of the story

Conflict with Authority: The protagonist challenges and ultimately overcomes Ebedaholtihe, a figure of power among the Cree.

Community and Isolation: The narrative explores themes of belonging and estrangement, as the protagonist transitions from being an enemy to becoming part of the Cree community.

Transformation through Love: The protagonist’s marriage into the Cree tribe signifies a personal and social transformation, fostering unity between former adversaries.

► From the same Region or People

North America
- Sub-Arctic Region
  - Chipewyan Lore

Learn more about the Chipewyan people

Once the Chipewyan and the Cree both came to the same place to fish. It was snowing and blowing, so they could not see anything. Soon one man came where another was sitting by his line. “You are the only one who has caught any fish,” he said. When the man looked back at him, he saw it was a Cree to whom he had spoken. Then he killed him with a spear and told his friends. Immediately, the Cree and the Chipweyan came together. There were many of them and they continued fighting each other until only two men were alive; one Chipewyan and one Cree. When these two had tried in vain to kill each other, they walked together to the lake. The Cree proposed that they should sit there and fish. “I have no hook,” said the Chipewyan. The Cree took the larger muscle from his arm and the Chipewyan the small muscle.

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They fished with these for hook and line. After a while, the Cree went to look at the hook. “I did not kill anything,” he told the Chipewyan when he returned. “You must have gone to it too soon. If I had gone, there would have been something.” “Will you go and look at it,” said the Cree. When he came to the hook, he caught two trout.

After a short time, many Cree came to the lake. The Cree man then told the Chipewyan that there was one dangerous Cree named, Ebedaholtihe. When they came up to them, one said to the Cree, “Many young men came here with you, I suppose that one sitting with you is one of your relatives.” “He is a dangerous man whom I have tried in vain to kill,” replied the Cree. “Do not bother him; he will make trouble for you.” Ebedaholtihe, said, “Fire is not disturbed by songs. Pile up a lot of wood for him.” Then they built a big fire and began to push the Chipewyan toward it. As he began to burn, he said to himself, “I wish otters would come here.” Soon otters came. When those who were trying to burn him saw the otters running toward him, they ran away. The Chipewyan followed by the otters ran after them. As he came near a man, he would catch up an otter and throw it at him. The otters bit them and they died. He threw two of them at his friend who caught them. When he threw one at Ebedaholtihe, it nearly killed him. When he pushed his head up through the bloody snow, he struck him on the crown of his head. He gave one of the otters to his friend. “Now, you see, I told you he was a dangerous man,” said the young Cree.

After that, the Chipewyan went to live with the Cree. When a tipi had been put up, the Cree called to him, “Come here.” When the Chipewyan was near he called to him to come in, and made a place for him on the opposite side of the fire. The Cree had two wives one sitting on either side of him. He picked up the one sitting near the door and threw her across the fire to the Chipewyan who caught her and threw her back. Then he took the wife sitting beyond the fire and threw her to him but he threw her back. He threw again the one sitting next to the door. She caught the Chipewyan about the neck and he married her. After that, he lived with the Cree.

He lived with the Cree a long time after that. He had children which were growing up. One time when he was away hunting he saw tracks of some people and followed them until he came where they were living. He found two of his sisters gathering firewood. He went with them to the village. One of his moccasins was torn and one of his sisters sewed it up for him. Taking a sack of red paint, he started home. When he came back to his tipi, his wife noticed that the moccasin had been mended. Her husband asked what she was thinking about. The wife, without replying, hung up his moccasins.

He went over there again and told the people what had happened. They talked it over and said they would come and kill them. The Chipewyan who was living with the Cree told them not to come near his tipi which they would recognize since it would be of untanned skins. When he came home he told his wife that his head was aching and asked her to make a tipi for him of untanned skin and pitch it to one side in which he might lie. She made a tipi for him and he went into it with all his family. He told his wife not to let the child go out of doors. In the night, he heard the Chipewyan coming. He went out immediately and came to his friend. “I will fight you again,” he said. “This time I will not think about living. Do what you intend to, spear me here.” “Put your spear down near by,” he said. Several of the Chipewyan’s relatives were killed but they killed all the Cree who were living there. The son of the Chipewyan had gone out and also been killed; but his wife and the remainder of his family were alive. The Chipewyan was about to kill some of his own people because of it but they gave him a young man of the same age in the place of his son who had been killed. Then he was satisfied and went with the Chipewyan and afterward lived with them.